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历史的上8月13日都发生那些大事
uio899
回答了这个问题 | 09-09-13
August 13 is the Gregorian calendar year the first 225 days (leap year of 226 days), from the end of the year there are 140 days.
Events
1792 - French Revolution: The French King Louis XVI and Queen were in prison.
1803 - Nguyen Phuc Qing Feng Ying as Annan king.
1814 - Cape of Good Hope Province, became a British colony.
1905 - Norway became an independent state
1912 - French doctors found that cancer cells
1927 - Chiang Kai-shek to step down
1937 - "8 - 13" Incident
1943 - Nationalist "lower officials, such as hair, down the waves,"
1945 - Mao Zedong's victory over Chiang Kai-shek after the policy
In 1948 - Peking Opera performers, JIN Shao-Shan sick and eventually died
1958 - production of early rice in Hubei Macheng put satellites
1961 - East Germany began building the Berlin Wall
1961 - start construction of the Berlin Wall. This is the former German Democratic Republic of the construction of the boundary wall around West Berlin, the official name is "anti-fascist defense wall"
1980 - The CPC Central Committee decided to set up consultancy
1985 - State Council approved the implementation of the Spark Program
In 1992 - a number of provincial cities along the Yangtze River inland open
1998 - Fan Zhiyi Sun Jihai contract with Crystal Palace
2000 - The Russian Navy's "Kursk" nuclear submarine in the Barents Sea multi-purpose to participate in the Northern Fleet exercises, accident, sinking them into the sea, the boat the 118 officers and men were all killed.
Birth
1890 - Birth of Li Tsung-jen, a Chinese National Revolutionary Army General, former Vice-President of the Republic of China, on behalf of the President of the
1899 - Alfred Hitchcock was born, famous American film director, known as the "master of suspense"
1926 - Cuban Revolution leader Fidel Castro was born
Death
604 - Yang Jian death of Emperor Wen
1865 - Semmelweis died, Czechoslovakia Obstetrics and Gynecology Expert
1910 - Florence Nightingale, English nursing pioneer, founder of women's vocational nurses
1946 - British science-fiction writer, died hg Wales
Festivals
International left-handed Day8月13日是阳历年的第225天(闰年是226天),离一年的结束还有140天。
大事记
1792年——法国大革命:法国国王路易十六和王后被关入监狱。
1803年——清朝封阮福映为安南国王。
1814年——好望角省成为英国殖民地。
1905年——挪威成为独立国家
1912年——法国医生发现癌细胞
1927年——蒋介石下野
1937年——“八-一三”事变
1943年——国民党“降官如毛,降将如潮”
1945年——毛泽东提出抗战胜利后对蒋方针
1948年——京剧名角金少山贫病而终
1958年——湖北麻城早稻产量放卫星
1961年——东德开始建造柏林墙
1961年——柏林墙动工修建。这是前德意志民主共和国围绕西柏林建造的界墙,正式名称是“反法西斯防卫墙”
1980年——中共中央决定设置顾问
1985年——国务院批准实施星火计划
1992年——沿江内陆一批省会城市对外开放
1998年——范志毅孙继海同水晶宫队签约
2000年——俄罗斯海军“库尔斯克”号多用途核潜艇在巴伦支海参加北方舰队演习时发生事故,沉入海底,艇上118名官兵全部遇难。
出生
1890年——李宗仁诞生,中国国民革命军陆军一级上将,曾任中华民国副总统、代总统
1899年——希区柯克诞生,美国著名电影导演,被称为“悬念大师”
1926年——古巴革命领导人卡斯特罗出生
逝世
604年——杨坚逝世,隋文帝
1865年——泽梅尔魏斯逝世,捷克斯洛伐克妇产科专家
1910年——南丁格尔,英国护理学先驱、妇女护士职业创始人
1946年——英国科幻小说家作家h.g.威尔斯逝世
节日
国际左撇子日
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历史
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历史中佟佳芷洛的记载 ?
uio899
回答了这个问题 | 09-09-13
Tong Jia Tse Lok, Emperor Kangxi's uncle Tong Kunitsuna the only granddaughter, was his third son Kwame Dai's daughter. Tong, General Kunitsuna year heroic battle in the Ulaan Commission martyred two years later, Tse Lok was born, and her brave grandfather who is still shining in the glory of her - pity its Guruo Kangxi Emperor (whose mother died giving birth), Cheng Jin Gege it as special letters from the Soviet Union Well La Regardless of personal care. In the Qing Dynasty, even princesses have been eclipsed under the Elder brother's thunder little interest, such Jung, it is hard to imagine. Tong Jia Shi status of forces is obvious.佟佳芷洛,康熙的舅舅佟国纲唯一的孙女,是他的第三子夸岱的女儿。佟国纲将军当年在乌兰巴统大战中英勇殉国,两年后,芷洛出生,而她神勇的祖父身上的荣光仍旧照耀在她身上——康熙帝悯其孤弱(其生母难产而死),特封其为承瑾格格,由苏嘛喇姑亲自抚养。在清朝,连公主们都在阿哥的风头下黯然失色乏人问津,这样的荣宠,实在是难以想象。佟佳氏的势力地位由此可见一斑。
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历史
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论历史文学独特的语言媒介系统兼谈20世纪现代主义历史文学的
uio899
回答了这个问题 | 09-09-13
"On the history of literature and the unique medium of the system - and to talk about the 20th century, the history of literature of modernism
A special form of "historical / modern language media
Number of quite good in the history of literary criticism and research, language and even the media is the least of their talk about a topic completely obscured. This is perhaps because the traditional way of thinking the concept of language tools that are not unrelated, because by that point of view of language tools to study the medium of literature, natural history than to study its ideological content and authenticity of a more meaningful; but I am afraid what is more important history of literary language media system is a special complex and difficult to grasp, it was ancient or modern genre features classically derived "historical / modern language media, so that our inherent research methods and critical theory can not help but seem a little embarrassed, and even the appearance of a loss in varying degrees of aphasia.
Describing the history of literature has become a past "history", according to the principle of theory of reflection, of course, need to adopt a corresponding "history" of the language, particularly those filled with contemporary flavor bogey "modern" language. In a sense, we may even think that only using part of "history" of the language to reflect the contents of the history of life it is considered completely loyal to the historical truth. However, when we will be this proposition into specific context of the history and reality to be examined when the felt it is complex. First of all, the history of the language of pure hard to obtain and can not reproduce. Authors for the creation of material mostly from the history books, but the history books is not the same as real, full of history. It recorded historical nature of things, due to the difficulty of writing Chinese characters and material conditions, but also because of the privileged monopoly of the Chinese writing system of symbols and oral sound system of symbols has long been the existence of serious, "Wen and the words separation "phenomenon; it can not be a true" history of language ", while the incorporation of varying degrees on a number of" non-historical "factors. According to Hu in the "History of vernacular literature," and Lu Xun in "outside the text且介亭杂文talk about" the view, Chinese writing system as early as the Han Emperor Wu of the era had been "dead" has gone, it is in fact a reality at that time spoken some of the "Summary", and more after the gap of the greater distance from the spoken language, and gradually formed a set of rigid written vocabulary and grammar patterns. In fact, the latter was in plain language precisely what was the usual real terms, at great length the former so-called "archaisms", even if not to say contrary to literary pen flower of the "processing to create", but also at least a rigid type of of the lineage. Secondly, say the least, even if a writer is truly in his works the use of "history" of the language, apart from a few historians, anthropologists, archaeologists, can be several people can read, understood? Notes, language as human beings to create a special media tool, it is a history with the ability to change the historical evolution. A number of symbols was originally the name of the constant, daily, it may become a quasi-A, be A or even non-A's name. As for the signs of wear and tear, dislocation, transformed for the new derivative word, it is not uncommon phenomena. Shakespeare's time in English, even today, the British, who, reading together is also not an easy task. One of Confucius's "Analects of Confucius", there is no certain knowledge of the ancient Chinese, we should probably really a bit difficult miles of them are listed. If our history, literature and writers in order to obtain the true sense of the so-called historical truth and so followed suit, selling to the readers of such language, then one can only look on in despair. Hugo On the absolute nature of artistic creation can not be had in order to imitate Corneille's "Cid" as an example played a very vivid metaphor. He said: We assume that a proposition is absolutely imitate the natural person who, when he see the "Cantar de Mio Cid" and the performances will surely ask: "how?" Cantar de Mio Cid, "the characters speak is also used poetry! Using poetry to speak is not natural. "" Well, you asked him how should I say? "" use the prose. "" Well, on the prose. "After several moments, he also asked:" how, "Cid," the characters speak French, then !, "" So the talk about such things? "" naturally calls for dramatis personae speak their own language, he could only speak Spanish. "" Then we will also not understand the point, however, is according to you. " Do you think it will find fault with it? No, do not speak Spanish at 10, he would stand up and asked to speak on stage who is not a true Cid Cid I ... ... ① Here, the ridiculous paradox reasoning also reveals the historical fact of non-literary language "history" of non-absurdity and not unreasonable to expect.
That said, the history of literary language media, whether on the use of a purely modern vernacular, and other modern subjects of the linguistic form there is no difference? Probably can not come to that conclusion. The reason is simple, modern language belongs to the scope of modern culture, and its semantics, language sense, voice, language potential, language rules, after all, the era of today, rather than the product of past history, and with, including ideology, moral values of modern life, including appropriate content of the. As we all know, language, thinking and communication as a symbolic system, which was originally used to refer to be reflected on the object with the object function. Although it is not the object itself, linguistic symbols, but it is from the ultimate sense, after all, is a "real abstraction" (Pavlov language), is the meaning of the carrier; and meaning is a reflection of the object is a manifestation of the concept of the object, Therefore, it is the same object there is some connection between. It is precisely because language has the above characteristics, in particular, is a symbol, meaning, and the alleged ternary relations is characterized by the unity of ternary one and therefore I writer, when carrying out the historical literature, in order to be able to pass the information symbol to carry the historical objects of the object meaning, a meaning of existence of the material form of sensibility, it can not use the real "modern" sense of the language media, especially those who have only the contents of today's life, and has a specific value to point to the meaning of the language medium. Such as "line struggle" "class analysis" "information feedback" "feature vector" "renting," "re-employment" and so on. This medium of reason can not be used, is due as a signal transmission to the readers or viewers, and its clear and defined directional and can only motivates people to them and the content of modern life, a direct linkage, resulting in aesthetic psychological It is also impossible to attract the proper sense of history, resulting in signs and significance of"论历史文学独特的语言媒介系统——兼谈20世纪现代主义历史文学的
一、特殊形态的“历史/现代语媒
在为数颇丰的历史文学评论和研究中,语言媒介是其谈论最少以至完全被遮蔽的一个话题。这可能跟传统的语言工具说的思维观念不无关系,因为按语言工具说的观点来看,研究历史文学的语言媒介自然不如研究其思想内容和真实性更有意义;但更主要的恐怕还是在于历史文学语言媒介系统的特殊复杂和不易把握,它的现代人写古或拟古的文类特征所派生的“历史/ 现代的语媒,使我们固有的研究方法和批评理论不免显得有些尴尬,乃至程度不同地出现某种不知所措的失语。
历史文学描写的是业已成为往事的“历史”,按照反映论的原理,当然需要采用一种与之相适应的“历史化”的语言,而尤忌那种充满当下气息的“现代化”语言。从某种意义上,我们甚至认为只有用属于“历史化”的语言来体现历史的生活内容才算是完全忠于历史真实。然而当我们将这个命题纳入具体的历史和现实语境中加以审视时,就感到它的复杂。首先,纯粹的历史化的语言很难求得,也无法复现。作者用以创作的素材大多来自史书,但史书并不等同于真实、完全的历史。它所记录下来的史料性的东西,由于汉字的难写及物质条件的限制,同时也由于特权者的垄断,中国的书面文字符号系统与口头声音符号系统早就存在着严重的“文与言分家”的现象;它也不可能是真正的“历史语言”,而程度不等地掺入了许多“非历史”的因素。根据胡适在《白话文学史》和鲁迅在《且介亭杂文门外文谈》的看法,汉语书面文字系统早在汉武帝时代就已经“死”去了, 它事实上只是当时现实口语的某些“摘要”, 并且愈后与口语的距离拉得愈大, 逐渐形成了一套僵死的书面语汇和文法模式。其实, 后者那通俗易懂的语言恰恰是当时惯常的真实用语, 而前者的连篇累牍的所谓“之乎者也”, 即使不说是出乎文人笔下生花的“加工创造”, 也起码是一种僵化类型化的沿袭。其次, 退一步说, 就算是作家在作品中真正使用“历史”的语言, 除了少数的历史学家、人类学家、考古学家外, 能有几人看得懂、听得懂? 须知, 语言作为人类创造的一种特殊的媒介工具, 它是具有随历史而变的历史演变能力的。一些符号本来是A 的名称, 天长日久, 就有可能变成了准A 、拟A 甚至非A 的名称。至于符号的磨损、错位, 蜕变为新的衍生词, 那就更是屡见不鲜的现象。莎士比亚时代的英语, 即使对今天的英国人来说, 读解起来也非易事。一部孔子的《论语》, 没有一定的古汉语的知识, 要看下去恐怕还真有点吃力哩。如果我们的历史文学作家为了求得所谓的真正意义上的历史真实而依此如法炮制, 将这类语言兜售给读者, 那么人们只好干瞪眼。雨果在谈到艺术创作不能摹仿绝对自然时曾以高乃依的《熙德》为例打过一个很生动的比喻。他说: 我们假设一个主张绝对摹仿自然的人, 当他看到《熙德》的演出时一定会问: “ 怎么? 《熙德》的人物说话也用诗! 用诗说话是不自然的。”“那么, 你要他怎么说呢?”“要用散文。”“好, 就用散文。”过一会, 他又要问了:“怎么,《熙德》的人物讲的是法国话! ”“那么该讲什么话呢? ”“自然要求剧中人讲本国语言, 只能讲他的西班牙语。”“那我们就会一点也听不懂了, 不过, 还是依你的。”你以为挑剔就会了吗? 不, 西班牙语还没有讲上十句, 他又会站起来并且质问这位在台上说话的熙德是不是真正的熙德本人……①这里, 可笑悖谬的推论实际上也就揭示了历史文学语言非“历史化”不可的悖谬和不近情理。
如此说来, 历史文学语言媒介是否就采用纯粹的现代白话, 与其它现代题材的语言形态没有任何区别呢? 恐怕也不能得出这样的结论。道理很简单, 现代语言属于现代文化的范畴, 它的语义、语感、语态、语势、语规毕竟是今天时代而不是过去历史的产物, 并与包括意识形态、道德观念在内的现代生活内容相适的。众所周知, 语言作为思维和交流的一种符号系统, 它原本就具有用来指称被反映客体对象的功能。语言符号虽不是客体本身, 但它从终极意义上说毕竟是“现实的抽象化”(巴甫洛夫语), 是意义的载体; 而意义则是客体的反映, 是客体的观念表现形式, 所以, 它同客体之间存在着一定的联系。正因为语言具有如上的特点, 尤其是具有符号、意义和指称的三元关系, 是三元一体的统一的特点, 故而作家在进行历史文学创作时, 为使符号携带的信息能传递历史客体对象的意义, 成为意义存在的感性物质形式, 那就不能使用真正“现代”意义上的语言媒介, 特别是那些惟有今天生活内容才有的、具有特定价值指向意义的语言媒介。如“路线斗争”“阶级分析”“信息反馈”“功能向量”“租赁经营”“重新就业”等等。这样的语言媒介之所以不能用, 乃是因为作为一种信号输送给读者或观众, 它的鲜明而确定的指向性, 只能触动人们将它们和现代生活内容直接挂钩联系, 从而在审美心理上一点也引不起应有的历史感, 造成符号和意义、指称的截然分离。人们常常批评的历史文学的“现代化”倾向, 从语言符号角度看, 其理即此。据有篇评论文章介绍, 郭沫若的《棠棣之花》在当年演出时曾有过这么一件轶事: 当剧中人盲叟在第四幕说道: “呵, 我还是吃口馒头吧”, 结果引得哄堂大笑, “而在这句话以前的整幕情绪是很凄凉哀静的。”②观众为什么“哄堂大笑”呢? 这里的原因主要就是语言符号太“现代化”的缘故。因为我们知道, 任何一个语言现象, 当它作为由人设定的一种符号系统纳入社会媒介交流机制时, 就“不仅在逻辑上存在或抽象地存在”着, 它同时“也有心理上的存在”③。由于这个原因, 语言总是有它一定的规约性、指向性和价值负荷。超越了这个限度,它就要在“心理上、情感上”给人们造成一种失真之感,使其只能产生“伪指称”的功能效果。郭沫若在总结自己历史剧创作经验时,曾对历史文学语言如何处理历史与现代关系发表了相当精辟的见解。他认为历史文学语言“以古今能够共通的最为理想”,“古语不通于今的非万不得已不能用,用时还须在口头或形象上加以解释。今语为古所无的则断乎不能用,用了只是成为文明戏或滑稽戏而已。”郭老一方面反对“用绝对的历史语言”,一方面又提出多少要有限制,应该掺进一些古语或文言。他总的主张是:历史文学的“ 根干是现代语, .. 但是现代的新名词和语汇,则绝对不能使用。”④另一位著名历史剧作家陈白尘也说过相类似的话,他早在1937 年创作《金田村》的时候,就颇有意味地将历史文学语言媒介归纳为“ 历史语言= 现代语言-现代术语、名词+ 农民语言的朴质、简洁+ 某一特定时期的术语、词汇”。⑤郭沫若、陈白尘的意见很值得重视,它可以视作是对我们上述所说的历史文学语言特性的带有普遍意义的一个概括。如果将其归纳总结,那它的基本图式就是:
历史文学语言= 现代白话文-现代熟悉的特定术语词汇+ 过去陌生的特定历史术语词汇
不是纯粹的现代语,也不是一味的文言文,而是在现代语的基础上减去一些今天现代人非常熟悉的习惯用语,加上一些过去特有的名词术语,这大概就是历史文学语言具体化的特殊形式, 即我们这里所说的独特的“历史/ 现代”的语言形态。这种语言形态,从审美感知上说,它主要通过熟悉的陌生化、远近的双重性,一方面使人感到是亲切贴近的;另一方面又使人感到是陌生新奇的,从而在艺术欣赏时既能达到感情与共而又处处隐伏历史距离的特殊美感。从语言结构上说,这主要是采取对文言古语融化的方式:把历史用语中那些仍旧具有生命力的词汇、语句融化在现代白话文中,使之成为白话文生命血脉的有机组成部分,用赫尔扎洛娃在捷克《文学月报》召开的一次“ 历史文学圆桌座谈会”的话来讲,就是“古语、罕用词、带时代色彩的语词等用在历史长篇小说中是必要的,有利于制造气氛。……不生吞活剥地使用古词、罕用词, 而是用得恰到好处,同整个艺术风格协调,这也是长篇小说的艺术。”⑥当然,有必要说明,这里所谓的“历史/ 现代”形态的语言属于“第二自然”形态的一种语言,并非为历史所实有。即是说,它是作家人工创造出来的、被拟古化装了的一种假定的“历史语言”。明明反映的是历史的生活内容,却要用“历史/ 现代”形态的语言来加以表现,这就是历史文学语言媒介的独特之处。
迄今以来的创作实践也充分证实历史文学语言的确具有自身的特殊性,对它的准确把握与否往往给整部作品的真实性与艺术价值带来很大的影响。电影《林则徐》的编剧之一吕宕在一篇短文中谈到前些年看到一个《孟尝君》史剧的排演,编导者竟让胸有大才而不得其用的食客冯 在舞台上大唱其“长铗归来兮,食无鱼! 长铗归来兮,出无车! 长铗归来兮,无以为家”之类的词句,弄得观众互相错愕,不知所云。与吕宕所说的完全相反,笔者也曾读到一部描写汉代清官董宣的长篇小说,该书有颇多地方竟让这位一千九百年前的封建官吏满口说出:“真对不起! 请原谅”“少受精神折磨”,“作好精神准备”“在今后的生活道路上……对我会产生无穷无尽的力量”等新鲜词儿。这两种现象看似对立,但实质并无二致,都反映了对历史文学语言媒介独特性认识和把握的不当:前者,它的问题主要在于向读者输送构成形象的信息时, 由于语言过分“稽古”不可解达不到应有的阈值,给他们本来愉悦易解的审美接受人为地增设翳障。因为“达不到”,它当然也就不能有效地引发读者的心理感应,使他们借运语言信息来调动自己的感性经验去充实、构造生动的艺术形象。后者,其问题的症结则是这些语言内涵的鲜明而确定的指向性,它只能触动和诱使读者将它和现实生活内容直接挂钩联系,从而在审美心理上一点也引不起应有的历史感,造成符号和意义、指称的截然分离。人们经常批评的历史文学“现代化”倾向所指即此。从语言角度讲,就是将历史文学的以现代白话为基础的这个正确命题推向极端,简单视作“现代/现代”形态而没有把它纳入“历史/现代”的语言机制中进行有约束的创作。它与前面所说的语言不适当地被“稽古”,也即将历史文学语言的历史化简单看成是“历史/历史”形态一样,都是不可取的。
大概是有鉴于此,我们见到的不少现当代历史文学作家,特别是有追求、有成就的作家,都无不高度重视其语言媒介的特殊性,并通过多种途径,在自己的作品中营建各具个性化的“历史/现代”形态的语言世界。如姚雪垠、凌力、杨书案有意引进古典诗词曲赋碑铭(《李自成》、《九月菊》);端木蕻良、徐兴业、二月河大量化入当时的方言俗语( 《金瓯缺》、《少年天子》、《曹雪芹》、《雍正皇帝》);蒋和森、顾汶光、唐浩明的描写语言古朴典雅,明显融润着文言古文的韵味(《天国恨》、《风萧萧》、《曾国藩》);刘斯奋富有意味地将纯粹的现代文、明清白话小说中的口语和浅近的文言糅为一体(《白门柳》);而历史剧领域中的老一辈作家曹禺、陈白尘,他们的语言半文半白、铿锵简洁,不仅符合人物的身份和个性,而且听来朗朗上口,黯契戏剧现场接受的特点。理想的历史文学语言就不是这样,它从不单向极化地将自我锁定在“历史”或“现代”的某一端,而是富有意味地在古今之间寻求“恰当的结合”或曰进行“远近感知的高度融合”,以使读者和观众进入一个理想的“历史幻境”之中,在与对象感情与共、充分理解的同时又保持必要的历史距离。⑦
二、语言媒介与作家的艺术自觉
当然,以上所说的“历史/现代”形态的语言仅仅是历史文学语媒系统的“一个最简单的基本公式”(陈白尘语),在实际的创作过程中,情况要复杂得多。这倒不尽是理论与实践有时也会错位,更重要的则在于要真正按这个公式的主张付之实践,还要碰到如下几个复杂的环节、复杂的因素;而这一切,如果不得力于作家艺术自觉的积极参与,那最终也是无法得以转化完成的。
首先,历史文学语言媒介的复杂表现在文体之间的差异,由于文体的形式规范不同,同样是语言,小说、戏剧、影视,它们在具体运用时彼此是有区别的。小说是阅读的艺术,它可以细细咀嚼,可以反复玩味;可以随时放下,也可以随时拿起,这都无碍于读者的艺术接受。而戏剧与影视是临场观赏的艺术,它是顺流直下,一泻千里,以直观和连续的形式直接显影于舞台和银幕,不能有半刻的停顿,所以它在语言方面与小说的要求也是有所不同的。李渔说:“曲文之词采,与诗文之词采非但不同,且要判然相反。何也?诗文之词采贵典雅而贱粗俗,宜蕴藉而忌分明;词曲不然,话则本之街谈巷议,事则取其直说明言。凡读传奇而有令人费解,或初阅不见其佳,深思而后得其意之所在者,便非绝妙好词。”⑧李渔斯论甚妙,他在这里实际上提出了小说(广义的诗文)与戏剧(那时还没有影视)的文体自觉的问题。确实,这对我们历史文学作家怎样把握和用好语言关系极大。郭沫若的《司马迁发愤》写司马迁正在赶写《史记》最后一篇《太史公自叙传》时与来访的益州刺史任少卿交谈的一段情节。文章结尾处,作者直接抄引了《史记·太史公自叙传》中一段颇有点长的文言文入书:“惜西伯拘 里,演《周易》。孔子厄陈蔡,作《春秋》,屈原放逐,著《离骚》……”作为文字,我们读到这里可能有点拗,但这无关紧要, 你可以放慢节奏,细嚼慢品嘛;更重要的是通过这段文言,它给予我们以特有的历史感。这就是小说给我们的便利。所以,我们不仅不应责怪郭老,反要感激他。至于戏剧、影视就不允许这样。如果它们的作者为了求得历史感,一味效仿小说的“典雅”“蕴藉”而不“直说明言”,那么效果就像前面举例的《孟尝君》一样,只会令观众如坠云雾之中;真则真矣,但历史感也就在这莫名其妙中被化为乌有。
当然,如果再加分辨,戏剧与影视的语言也是不尽相同的。黑格尔在《美学》中批评歌德的《葛兹·封·伯利兴根》写得太平常琐细,就戏剧而言,他的批评是对的;但如果论影视文学(此处小说亦然),这位先哲大师的话就不免显得有些武断,歌德的描写很可能是生活化细节化的一个精彩片断。道理相同而事例相反,莎士比亚饮誉世界文坛的优秀史剧,如果将它原封不动地搬到影视画面中来,那即使最精彩的对话,也有可能成为累赘。美国斯坦利·梭罗门在他的《电影的观念》一书中说得好:“我们会以为,把莎士比亚的剧本改编成的影片即使达不到伟大的水平,至少在一个方面不会有问题:对话总是出色的。实际上,只要我们研究半打最优秀的莎士比亚影片的话,我们就会发现它们实在平常得让人吃惊。实际情况是这些影片中的对话非但不能起好作用,往往还是影片最糟的部分。”他分析道:这里的原因主要是莎翁立足于戏剧审美规范的写法,他能在人物的对话中造成深刻的环境感,而电影作为视觉形象是从来不需要这种“暗示性对话的”⑨。梭罗门的意见相当精辟。这说明历史文学语言媒介的运用光凭一个抽象的公式并不解决问题,它必须被纳入各自的文体机制中才能有望成功。
其次,历史文学语言媒介的运用与叙述对象亦有关系。我们所讲的语言只是一种大而笼统的说法,按叙事学的分析,其实可分叙述语言和作品人物语言两个层面。叙述语言就是作者自我的语言,它在作品中是被用来描写解释和抒情之用的,塔斯基把它叫作“元语言”;作品人物语言虽然也是作者赋予的,但它不是作者自我的语言,而是作者所创造的人物他我的语言。它在作品中是被用来直接表现描写对象的,经常以人物对白和独白方式展开,塔斯基把它叫作“对象语言”。这两个层面的语言是不能混淆的。它们的性质和功能也不同。因此作家在描写和运用时就要有所区别。章学诚在历史文学真实性问题上讲过一些为人所诟的话,但这番意见我们得刮目相待:“叙事之文,作者之言也,为文为质,为其所欲,期如其事而已;记言之文,则非作者之言也,期于适如其人之言,非作者所能自主也。”⑩历史文学语言的道理亦然。叙述语言因系“作者之言”,是作者作为第三人称身分向读者讲述的语言,虽然它在描写时有一个和作者身份相符、同人物语言协调的问题,但它随机性毕竟比较大,自主权掌握在作家手中。人物语言的情况就不是这样,它是作品里特定历史环境中特定人物在向我们发言,因此,它的要求和规范相应就严格得多,不能听凭作者随意摆布。对于他们,作者固然不能让春秋时代的人满口讲春秋时代的话,但他得必须谨防那些熟悉的新名词、新术语从他们嘴里溜出。这里容不得半点含糊的。我们经常所说的历史文学“现代化”,就是指的“人物语言”而不是“叙述语言”的现代化。叙述语言一般是不会现代化的,也很少有现代化。这从近年来的有关历史文学作品中也不难看出。例如前文举到的那些诸如“真对不起! 请原谅”之类的话,就是属于“人物语言”方面的问题。指出这一点有其必要,它可以使我们作家在创作时避免犯塔斯基所说的“语义悖论”的错误,更加灵活而又更加具体地将历史文学的“历史/现代”语媒付之实践,从而避去许多不必要的忧虑和顾忌,使作品达到“历史感”和“现实感”的有机统一。事实上,现有不少历史文学作家也是这样做的,他们的实践已为我们的观点提供了很好的依据。如刘斯奋的《白门柳》就将叙述语言和人物语言富有意味地区分开来:前者用现代白话文,后者根据场合和具体情况, 或借鉴明清白话小说中的口语, 或赋之于浅近的文言。两套语言交替使用, 显得既雅且俗, 恰倒好处, 颇受人们的赞誉。
再次, 历史文学语媒的运用还有一个审美态度和创作方法之差的问题。这也需要作家自觉意识的合力相濡。再现与表现、写实与主情、现实主义与浪漫主义, 在语感、语态、语调、语势诸方面不可能全然一样。前者语言载体中实感性、质感性的含量比较大, 基本与生活保持“同构”关系。它们的语言形式一般比较自然质朴, 而又小心地偏开现代语一点, 力求带些“古味”, 使人们从中领享到一种陌生美, 一种饱含历史汁液的纪实美, 其语言文字的主要功用形态是叙述和描写。后者的载体中更多是情感性、性灵性的内涵, 它与生活的关系是呈“ 异构”型的。语言文字未必不拟古化装, 但错彩镂金, 激情飞扬, 在视觉上能给人以很强烈的诗意冲激力。渗透在语言中的主体情感或感觉, 在比例上超过了客体的素描。文学史上, 托尔斯泰与莎士比亚, 福楼拜与雨果, 鲁迅与郭沫若, 曹禺与阳翰生, 森鸥外、井上靖与菊池宽、芥川龙之介, 他们的语媒大体就分属于这两种类型。我国新时期的不少历史小说也有这个区别。比如同是描写黄巢起义, 蒋和森与杨书案在语言风格包括外在语态和内在语涵上都互不相同, 各呈异彩。他们一个言简意赅, 典雅的语言外壳之内隐匿着相当实在厚重的客观涵量, 纪“实”的倾向在字里行间凸现得相当鲜明; 另一个则清字丽句, 在诗样的语言形式中涌动着诗样的意境, 抒情特征涵盖了一切。但都各尽其妙也各呈其能, 彼此实在是很难分出高下。因为他们是属于两种不同的审美方式。如果我们无视这一点, 简单地拿“历史/ 现代”公式去套, 那么就很有可能得出扬此抑彼或扬彼抑此的结论, 甚至作出截然错误的评判, 就像托翁对待莎翁那样。这对造就历史文学创作多元格局的形式, 进一步推动它的繁荣和发展, 无疑是不利的。伍尔夫指出: 批评家应该站在作家的角度, 用作者的透视方法来观察作品。11 我们反对对历史文学语言一刀切,主张与作者各自的审美个性审美态度审美方式联系考虑也就是这个道理。
三、现代主义历史文学的语言实验
说到历史文学的语言媒介系统, 还不能不提现代主义在这方面所作的探索, 这是2 0 世纪历史文学创作的一个新的景观, 新的亮点。毫无疑问, 这种现代主义形态的语言, 不同于上述的“历史/ 现代”的语媒, 带有明显的反逻辑反规范的特点。它也不再只是把语言看成是历史文学的一种媒介和手段, 而是将其视作是与创作的目的意图密切相关的独立本体, 赋予作家更自由地使用语言和探索语言的权力。我们说, 现实主义历史文学语言媒介的功用形态主要是被当作叙述和描写之用, 其信息含量中充满了实感性、质感性; 浪漫主义历史文学语言媒介的功用形态更多地被用来宣泄和抒怀之用, 其符号载体浸透了情绪性、性灵性; 但现代主义历史文学则不同, 它的“形”与“象”既不求与历史生活“同步”式的“本来如此”, 也不求与历史生活“理想”型的“应当如此”, 而是把它推向荒诞和变形, 但求“ 幻觉如此”。现代主义历史文学的这种“非常态”写作虽然也是作者创造的一种“第二自然”, 但它却突出地体现了语言自由穿越于“历史”与“现代”而又同时向彼此开放的现代语言观, 故其语言外壳往往以远离历史、超越历史的幻化面貌出现, 语象、语势、语态幽默、神奇、夸张, 充满怪诞和幻想。反映在创作上自然也就不再拘泥于传统历史文学的那种“历史/现代”常态, 而使作品的语言天马行空, 获得了前所未有的高度自由, 文本也因此具有强烈的语言实验的先锋意识。
就内容和性质而论, 现代主义历史文学的语言实验主要分以下三种类型:
(1) 古今式。非常陌生的历史语言和非常熟悉的现代语言有意错叠在一起,融古今于一体。时间的观念、空间的顺序完全被打破打乱了。古语就是今语,今语就是古语。为我们常态不允许的新名词、新术语在这里广泛得到运用,成串成串地从古人嘴里冒出。典型的例子莫过于鲁迅的《理水》,明明是蒙昧洪荒的远古时代,却让其语言载体中引进“古貌林”、“好杜有图”、“面包”、“饮料”、“维他命W”“碘质”,这就是对传统“常态”的一种反叛。它不仅大大逸出了人们经常的经验和美感范围,于已知实际生活所没有,就是按照亚里斯多德的可然律必然律原则也解释不通。十分有意思的是,这些古今式的语言媒介,有的纯粹是作者杜撰出来的,也有的“古”“今”两者(特别是“今”) 都有特定的事实指谓性,符号内含的信息相当实在。这样就形成了非常奇特的效果,它能由此把人诱入一个虚虚实实、实实虚虚,充满幽默滑稽、怪诞可笑的艺术幻境中,并激发起一种庄严的思索和神奇的遐想。这种情况像《理水》中对顾颉刚、林语堂等言语的模拟套引,便可见一斑。
(2) 魔幻式。如果说古今式是在纵向时序意义上对“ 常态”语言的一种反叛,那么魔幻式则是就横向类别性质对“常态”语言的一种突破。当然魔幻式常常又是古今式的。称为“魔幻”, 顾名思义,可想它的语言载体中,非人类的神魔幻想的信息含量是比较重的。的确,这正是魔幻式作品语言媒介的基本表象特征。此类作品如果往上追溯,可以说自古有之。歌德的《浮士德》便明显具有这样的表征。不过,作为一种趋同性的创作现象或文学潮流,那还是近几十年的事。而且在当今是愈来愈自觉、愈来愈成熟了。举例来说,如荣获1984年苏联列宁奖(最高奖) 的《普罗米修斯,别扔掉火种》诗剧,这里人神魔、神话传说与现在融合在一起,形成了一种奇妙的新格局。普罗米修斯犯天界禁律,窃火于人间,但却反被麻木愚昧的人类所拒绝;于是, 神与神之间的冲突就同神与人之间的冲突纠缠在一起,人神界限被打破了,作品的语言变得荒诞奇特。普罗米修斯对着地界的众人说“我的价值”、“我的智慧”;而人类之长却也可以报之于“我不需要智慧,而需要军队”之类的答词。还有像关于穿超短裙“不要脸”的对话,关于垃圾乱丢“污染环境”的对话等等,这些与全剧虽属幻化但却具有辛辣讽喻意味的故事情节交织在一起,典型地体现了魔幻式历史文学语言媒介的特色。
(3) 心理式。遵循心理活动、意识流程的规律来进行描写,这是此类作品的显著特点。为此,与之相应的,它们也就不能不赋予语言以俱足的心理性、意识性的因素。施蛰存的《石秀》取材于《水浒》第44 至46 回有关石秀的故事情节,但因为作者采用弗洛伊德式的心理解剖,小说中不仅原有的貌态作了根本改变,而且先前的实感性序列性很强的语言外壳也变得虚秘幽晦、错乱颠倒。全文凭借语言符号所呈现出来的图像是石秀狂热的性苦闷和性变态心理。含义虽然不深,但剖析的精细、描写的新奇,也可算作一绝。这对《水浒》的传统作法,无疑也是一种大胆的变形。此外,像新时期的历史长篇《苦海》(伯阳) 、《高阳公主》、《上官婉儿》(赵玫) 等也都具有类似的特点。
比较而论,在这三种类型的历史文学语言媒介系统中,心理式的人们容易理解。因为按照格式塔心理学派的意见,不但是在文学创作,就是一般人差不多也总是在发生了主观倾斜的“心理场”中从事日常活动的。所以,它的超越于现实的变形是应有之义,不足为奇。比较棘手的是魔幻式和古今式这两种,对此似有必要作进一步的阐释。
魔幻式的最大特征是神魔历史化和人格化。从表面上看,它似乎是文学的一种“复古”,像世界上许多民族的神话传说那样,分不清魔幻与现实、虚妄与实在。然而,正是这“分不清”(对作者来讲,自然是有意为之),却为作家的艺术创造提供了为别的题材内容所没有的独特的价值。因为对于审美来说, 无论神魔或人都是人学。只要作家人情地加以表现, 纳入人学的审美机制中, 这种“分不清”不但不是一种缺憾, 反而给作品陡添浪漫式的奇趣和魅力。故我们在观赏《普罗米修斯, 别扔掉火种》中普罗米修斯及其天上诸神的超凡表现, 明知其假却愿意以假当真, 并略去作者所设的“假”, 品领他的强烈的讽喻性和深刻的象征意义, 感到它的语言审美功能的矢向始终指对现实人间。魔幻式作品创造的艺术世界虽然一眼可见是幻化的世界但却往往与现实社会具有紧密同步的联系, 能激起当代观众的强烈兴趣, 道理即此。也许基于这个缘故, 《百年孤独》的作者马尔克斯对人们用“魔幻”一词评价他的作品有些不以为然, 他说与其称他为“魔幻现实主义者”, 不如称他为“社会现实主义者”。说: “我相信现实生活的魔幻。……把这样一种神奇之物称为‘魔幻现实主义’的, 这就是现实生活, 而且正是一般所说的拉丁美洲的现实生活……它是魔幻式的。”12 又说:“看上去是魔幻的东西, 实际上是拉美现实的特征。我们每前进一步, 都会遇到其他文明的读者来说似乎是神奇的事情, 而以我们来讲则是每天的现实。”13
至于魔幻式之外的古今式作品, 它主要恐怕是一个时间拼贴的问题。当作者有意让他的“古时”人在说“现时”的话时, 他实际上就是在打破已然的时间顺序, 将两个不同序态的时间叠化在一起。苏联哲学家莫斯杰巴宁柯在他的《宏观世界、巨大世界和微观世界的空间和时间》论著中, 曾根据现代物理学的时空观提出了现代哲学的变革, 其中讲到相对论的四维“空—时”流, 尤其是时间能不能向相反方向流动的问题。古今式作品在审美上对此作了富有意味的探讨。它通过语言狂欢的这种特殊姿态, 将一般科学视为荒诞的东西, 转化为一种具有特殊美感的真实形态。大禹时代讲英语等等, 当然是不可能的, 但惟其“错位”了, 它使我们观赏时透过这一时间落差的语态, 在古今同在的二元论的对立模式中, 求索其间潜存的幽邃深意。从语言学角度讲, 这也就是“ 利用语言词语中所包含的那种不固定性, 唤醒潜伏的远景并且使睡眠着的感性内容显得生动”14, 给人以“半透明”式的审美显示。
当然, 这样说并不意味现代主义历史文学语言可以随心所欲, 无所规约。作为一种“非常态”的语言, 它尽管随意荒诞, 表现了强烈的实验性、探索性和游戏狂欢的欲望, 但实际上其创作是相当严肃甚至是相当严谨的, 语言运作本身也是有原则和规律可循。这里所说的原则和规律, 从创作论层面上讲, 我以为主要有以下两点:
(一) 整体性。就是要联系作品的艺术整体, 将语言纳入一个内容与形式统一的审美框架中, 从它总体的格调、氛围、语势、语态进行把握, 而不是简单地抽出几个词加以循名责实。仍以《理水》为例, 那些充满现代性的时髦术语, 就是紧密地和所谓的“文化山”“飞车扔面包”、“大学解散”、“幼稚园没地方开”、“文化问题争论”、“拟定募捐计划”、“做时装表演”等契合在一起, 特别是和鲁迅那种特有的机趣、诙谐、讽刺、侃味和谐一体。如果离开了后者, 我们就会感到很滑稽, 不仅难以品享到它的独特的魅力, 而且极易产生“现代化”的幻灭感。用信息论原理看, 任何一个语言输出信息都是由两个变数即是信息本身(称为“信号”) 和整个模式(称为“上下文”) 通过大脑结合在一起, 才能获得解释的。“信号”潜在的意义, 只有靠读者通过对“上下文”的整体形象的把握, 诱发自己的经验联想和情感活动, 才能寻找到它的深刻独特的寓意。而“现代化”的幻灭感, 恰恰正是不顾“上下文”关系的。所以, 同样是古人说今话, 它们两者是可以分辨的, 作用于读者的心理也截然有别。
(二) 自为性。这可从作者主体意识中看出。现代主义历史文学上述之“非常态”语言的运用, 就作者自身来讲, 他是自觉的, 这是一种“有意故意”的作假, 并不是出于无知而不经意露出的破绽。无论是《普罗米修斯,扔掉火种》中让普罗米修斯及其诸神讲今话,《贵族尤利乌斯·恺撒的业绩》、《西蒙娜·马莎尔的梦》(布莱希特) 中让恺撒、马莎尔等人操今语,还是鲁迅在《采薇》、《出关》、《起死》中叫小丙君讲“文学概论”,关尹谈老作家“稿费从优”,庄子论“彻底的利己主义者”等等,作者主观心目中的人神、古今界限是非常清楚的。林非在论《故事新编》的一篇文章中对此曾有过一段很好的分析,他说:像鲁迅这样出于高度自觉的写法,“在作者主观上确实都没有将古今混淆起来。”正因为作者主观意识性程度非常强,所以他在进行古今语言杂陈描写时,不独特意挑选那些古今截然分明的语汇入书(力避似是而非、一般性的语汇入书),而且在具体描写时涉笔成趣,极尽诙谐和“油滑”。这样,就使这些插进去的今语彰明昭著地在作品中凸现出来,能“给读者造成滑稽和怪诞的感觉时,提醒他们划清作品中历史题材与现代生活情节的界限,而又在忍俊不禁的审美过程中与作者达成默契,产生联想”。这与作者由于无知、修养不足而一本正经地混淆古今,性质不同,效果也大相径庭。“一本正经的混淆古今,就划不清两者的界限,只能违背了历史主义;而诙诣和‘油滑’的杂陈古今,两者的界限始终是清楚的,自然就不存在违背历史主义的问题。”15 他的这个辨析,从一个侧面反映和揭示了现代主义历史文学语言探索的严肃性及其内在规律,值得我们引起重视。
① 雨果:《〈克伦威尔〉序》。
② 见章罂: 《从〈棠棣之花〉读到评历史剧》,《新华日报》1941 年12 月7 日。
③ 萨丕尔:《语言论》第31 页。
④ 郭沫若: 《历史·史剧·现实》,《语文》1927 年第2 卷第2 期。
⑤ 陈白尘: 《历史剧的语言问题》,《语文》1937 年第2 卷第2 期。
⑥ 引自《七十年代的捷克历史文学》,《外国文学动态》1980 年第6 期。
⑦ 余秋雨:《戏剧审美心理学》第378~379 页,四川人民出版社1985 年版。
⑧ 李渔:《闲情偶寄·贵显浅》。
⑨ 斯坦利·梭罗门:《电影的观念》第367~368 页,中国电影出版社1983 年出版。
⑩章学诚:《文史通义———古文十弊》。
11 弗吉尼亚·伍尔夫:《论小说与小说家》,上海译文出版社1986 年出版。
12 加西亚·马尔克斯: 《时代、创作和自己》,《外国文学动态》1982 年第12 期。
13 加西亚·马尔克斯: 《我的作品来源于形象》,《世界电影》1984 年第2 期。
14 沃尔夫冈:《语言的艺术作品》第389 页,上海译文出版社1984 年出版。
15 林非: 《论〈故事新编〉与中国现代文学中的历史题材小说》,《文学评论》1984 年第2 期。
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历史3历史题材文学创作的历史真实
uio899
回答了这个问题 | 09-09-13
""" History 3 "- historical themes of the historical truth of literary creation
Historical themes in the Creation of "historical truth" belongs to what? Belong to history or belong to literature? This is a historical theme creation a major problem. Because of this problem often have a different understanding of the historical results of a very different view of the creation of themes. Historians say the creation of historical themes are history, as you make it a historical theme for creative resources, then the respect for history, but also the history of the original appearance is a minimum requirement. Literary critic says, historical themes are the creation of literature, literary works can be fictional, historical themes as long as broadly in line with the historical framework of the creative and time-off limits, they have reached a historically real. Because of differences in views historian for the historical themes of literature criticism, almost all critical historical themes creative work does not meet the historical facts wrong, while the literary critic in the history of the real problems are relatively easy to put some, more to criticize the works of art of moving the issue of whether the power is sufficient. So I think to explore historical themes in the history of creative real problems for our understanding of the historical themes of the work is very important.
History 1 and History 2
The last century, the aesthetics of great debate 50 years, the late Distinguished Professor Mr. Zhu Guangqian raised a very interesting "things A - material B" proposition. For Mr. Zhu Guangqian understanding of this proposition is directly related to our creation of historical themes "historical one" and "History 2" understanding. Mr. Zhu Guangqian In dealing with Mr. Cai Yi's criticism, said: "Things are A natural objects, and material B is the natural objects with the objective conditions of people's subjective effects of the conditions created, so that natural objects have been impure, but rather a mixture of people subjective component of the material, in other words, it is already a matter of society. aesthetic object is not natural objects but as objects of the image of the objects of society. "[1] how we have no doubt that Mr Chu is a materialistic point of view is dialectical .
If we take the view Mr. Zhu used the above history, it is clear that the true history of the original completely original, completely non-subjective and the objective existence, that is "material A" that is, I say "historical one" . "History 1" - the original objective of the real historical existence, because it can not be entrained subjective element, is the true history of the site, which is almost is not fully recovered. Especially the future generations to write the history of our predecessors, to write the history of this truly original appearance of the same, out to restore the historical site is simply impossible. For example, the consensus is that we respected historian Sima Qian, a Han Dynasty era, he lived in BC 145 to BC 90 years. His "Historical Records" first "five emperors of the discipline," wrote the Yellow Emperor, Emperor Zhuan Xu, Di Ku, Yao Di, Shun, written in China there is no written records of the primitive history of the legend of the era, with Sima Qian's life millennium era may be about as long as he is nothing but the "Book of History" in its brief perfunctory chapters for the record, how can he write the original five emperors of the original appearance of the true history of it? And then the "Historical Records" Part IV, "Zhou Ji," for although there were written records, but it is about 1066 BC? - Before 771 years, from the era of his life is also about as early as 900 years to 500 years of history, he fails to put that period of history of this truly original narrative out? This is totally impossible. We say the least, with regard to his life during the Han Dynasty, he wrote the Han Emperor Wu, write Li Guang, write Weiqing so on, but he was not always moving in because he had said a few words on behalf of Li Ling was Han Wudi diminish them, by Gong Xing, almost as a basket case, in the WQ, Huo Qubing master military power, conquered the fierce slave period, in his own home to concentrate on preparation of "Historical Records", the message blocking, like the Emperor Wu and the Weiqing dialogue, how could he know? He was incriminating in the body, we avoid the fear behind him, who will talk on the court to tell him? So, in his "Historical Records" written as concrete, is entirely speculation Sima Qian's own words, is "the objective conditions of natural objects with the conditions of people's subjective effects of produce", "Historical Records" is the unity of subjective and objective product, not history itself, just the history of the "knowledge formality". We all admire written by Sima Qian, "Hong Menyan" story, the story can be described as one climax after another really exciting. Both characters play, exit, or character expression, movement, dialogue, and even the orientation of seats, are carefully orchestrated. I do not know how the story has been adapted into a dramatic dramatist on the stage. In this type of description, in order to highlight the dramatic literature in order to obtain realistic results, in order to show conflicts, in order to characterize of character, if not based on historical facts to make the necessary fiction, is simply impossible to write this. "Historical Records" Although the "Record", claiming it was agreed that a serious historian Sima Qian's attitude, but his pen, those life-like story, can not be completely true. The pursuit of vivid artistic effect, the pursuit of work appeal, he spent a lot of legends of materials, the details must be fictional. Sima Qian's Readme "Historical Records" The purpose is: "let the world lose nothing new recruit, to act a little test. Completes the Zhong Shi, JI Xing bad its success or failure of the mind", "Yi Yu Heaven in order to study the occasion pass changes from past to present , into one of the words. "It's great master of history many famous two thousand years to great popularity, which shows a historians must have his evaluation of the historical ideal, has his subjective. His "Historical Records" is not a complete history of this truly original records, is he provided historical "forms of knowledge."
So we said, that has not fully aware of the history of this truly original appearance of a "historical one," while historians recorded in history books, then inside the historical facts, is not entirely historical fact, has joined the historian's subjectivity filtering, he praised Yang He believes that good, and disparage him that bad, advocate what he would like to advocate is, omission he wanted to miss, even where there are at least there are details and a fictional plot and so on, this is the "History 2." Sima Qian's given us is the "historical 2", not "historical one." If we say that "history 1" is the original historical truth of the original, then "History 2" is the result of subjective evaluation of the historian had the history of forms of knowledge.
Literary historical themes is where to start it? Have“历史3”――历史题材文学创作的历史真实
历史题材创作中的“历史真实”属于什么?是属于历史还是属于文学?这是历史题材创作中一个重大问题。由于对这个问题经常有不同的理解,结果对一部历史题材的创作的看法迥异。历史学家说,历史题材的创作属于历史,既然你要以历史题材为创作的资源,那么尊重历史,还历史的本来面貌,就是起码的要求。文学批评家则说,历史题材的创作属于文学,文学创作是可以虚构的,历史题材的创作只要大体符合历史框架和时间断限,就达到了历史真实了。由于观点的分歧,历史学家对于历史题材文学创作的批评,几乎都是挑剔历史题材创作不符合历史事实的毛病,而文学批评家则在历史真实问题上相对则放得宽松一些,更多地去批评作品的艺术力量是否足以动人的问题。所以我认为探讨历史题材创作中的历史真实问题,对于我们如何理解历史题材的作品是很重要的。
历史1和历史2
上个世纪50年代的美学大讨论中,已故著名教授朱光潜先生提出了一个很有意思的“物甲-物乙”的命题。对于朱光潜先生的这个命题的了解直接关系到我们对历史题材创作中“历史1”和“历史2”的理解。朱光潜先生在反驳蔡仪先生的批评时说:“物甲是自然物,物乙是自然物的客观条件加上人的主观条件的影响而产生的,所以已经不纯是自然物,而是夹杂着人的主观成份的物,换句话说,已经是社会的物了。美感的对象不是自然物而是作为物的形象的社会的物。”[1]如何我们把朱先生观点无疑是唯物的又是辩证的。
如果我们把朱先生的观点运用于对历史上面,那么很显然,原本的完全真实的历史原貌,完全不带主观成分的客观存在,就是“物甲”,也就是我这里说的“历史1”。“历史1”――原本的客观存在的真实的历史存在,由于它不能夹带主观成分,是历史现场的真实,因而几乎是不可完全复原的。特别是后人去写前人的历史,要写到与本真的历史原貌一模一样,把历史现场还原出来,根本是不可能的。例如,大家都一致推崇的历史学家司马迁,是汉武帝时代人,他生活于公元前145年到公元前90年。他的《史记》第一篇《五帝本纪》,写黄帝、颛顼帝、喾帝、尧帝、舜帝,所写的是中国尚无文字记载的原始公社的传说时代的历史,具司马迁生活的时代也许有二千年左右之久,他不过是把《尚书》中及其简略的记载敷衍成篇,他怎么能写出五帝的原本的真实的历史原貌呢?再以《史记》第四篇《周本纪》来说,当时虽然有文字记载了,但那是大约是公元前1066?-前771年,距离他生活的年代也大约早900年到500年的历史,他怎能把那个时期的本真历史原貌叙述出来呢?这是完全不可能的。我们退一步说,就以他所生活的汉武帝时期来说,他写汉武帝,写李广,写卫青等,但他并非始终在朝,他因为替李陵说了几句话,被汉武帝贬责,受到了宫刑,几乎成为一个废人,在卫青、霍去病掌握兵权,征讨凶奴时期,他在自己的家乡专心编撰《史记》,消息闭塞,像汉武帝和卫青的对话,他怎么会知道呢?他当时获罪在身,大家避他唯恐不及,谁会把朝廷上的谈话告诉他呢?所以他在《史记》中写得那样具体,完全是司马迁自己的推测之辞,是“自然物的客观条件加上人的主观条件的影响而产生”,《史记》是主客观相统一的产物,不是历史本身,仅仅是历史的“知识形式”而已。大家都欣赏司马迁所写的“鸿门宴”故事,这个故事可谓高潮迭起,真是扣人心弦。无论是人物的出场、退场,还是人物的神情、动作、对话,乃至坐位的朝向,都十分讲究。这段故事不知被多少戏剧家改写成戏剧作品在舞台上演出。在这一类描写中,为了突出戏剧性,为了取得逼真的文学效果,为了展现矛盾冲突,为了刻划人物性格,如果不根据史实做必要的虚构,根本是不可能写成这样的。《史记》虽然以“实录”著称,大家一致认为司马迁具有严肃的史学态度,但他的笔下那些栩栩如生的故事,不可能完全是真实的。为了追求生动逼真的艺术效果,追求作品的感染力,他动用了很多传说性的材料,也必然在细节方面进行虚构。司马迁自述《史记》的宗旨是:“网罗天下放失旧闻,略考其行事。总其终始,稽其成败兴坏之记”,“亦欲以究天人之际,通古今之变,成一家之言。”这一代宗师的治史名言,二千年来脍炙人口,这说明一个史学大家必然有他的评价历史的理想的,有他的主观成分。他的《史记》不是完整的本真的历史原貌的记载,是他提供的历史“知识形式”。
所以我们说,那已经无法完全知道的本真的历史原貌是“历史1”,而历史学家记载的史书,那里面的历史事实,不完全是历史事实,已经加入了历史学家的主观成分的过滤,他褒杨他认为好的,贬抑他认为坏的,鼓吹他想鼓吹的,遗漏他想遗漏的,甚至其中也有起码也有细节和情节的虚构等等,这就是“历史2”。司马迁给我们提供的是“历史2”,不是“历史1”。如果说,“历史1”是原本的历史真实的原貌的话,那么“历史2”是经过历史学家主观评价过的历史知识形式。
历史题材的文学创作是从哪里开始的呢?有些历史学家要求从“历史1”开始,这是对历史题材创作的一种苛求,其实是做不到的。历史题材创作一般只能从史书开始,也就是从“历史2”开始。
从历史2到历史3
历史题材文学创作从“历史2”――史书开始,但不是重复史书。史书作为“历史2”是属于历史学,不属于文学。真正的历史题材的文学创作实际上是从“历史2”――史书开始,加工成文学作品。如前所述“历史2”已经有了加工,文学家创作历史题材的作品是在加工上面的再次加工。这后面的作家的加工属于文学加工,所产生的历史已经不再是“历史2”,而是“历史3”了。
那么,“历史3”与“历史2”有什么不同呢?历史题材的文学创作是从哪里开始?从哪里结束的呢?
毫无疑问,历史题材的文学创作只能从历史2开始,即从史书所提供的事实开始。因为作为历史2的史书是创作家首先要熟读的,因为不论史书如何夹带着主观成分,它总是提供了大致的历史线索、历史框架和时空断限。如何一个创作家连这些都一无所知,创作也就不可能。但是如何只是停留史书记载的具体描写上面,也还是不行的。对于历史题材的文学创作来说,最重要的一环是“艺术加工”。
“艺术加工”涉及的范围很宽,几乎就是再谈整个文学创作的规律,这篇小文里无法展开来讲。只能就其中最重要的一点来谈点看法。历史事件和历史人物都不是随意的,它的形成和产生都有其必然性。因此,在把握历史事件和历史人物中,如何尽可能做到“合理合情”就变得十分重要。所谓“合理”,就是说历史事件和历史人物的发展有它的内在的必然的逻辑性,他的形成和产生都受历史背景和条件的影响,创作家最重要的艺术加工就是要摸透历史事件和历史人物的这种内在的必然的逻辑运动规律,一旦摸透了,就不能随意地打断这种内在的必然的运动逻辑,而要始终紧跟这种逻辑。所谓“合情”,就是指历史人物的情感活动也是有内在的运动的轨迹的,他或她欢笑还是痛苦,是喜还是悲,是愤怒还是兴悦,是希望还是失望,等等,都不是随意的,也是有它自身的规定的。创作家对于历史事件和历史人物的这种运动轨迹,只能遵从,而不能随意违背。
列夫·托尔斯泰也是一个著名的历史文学家,他曾说:“不要按照自己意志随便打断和歪曲小说的情节,自己反要跟在它后头,不管它把您引向何方。”[2]列夫·托尔斯泰所说,无疑是十分正确的。中国古代文论里面,也有“事体情理”的说法,即所描写要符合对象的运动轨迹,不可胡来。曹雪芹是大家都佩服的小说家,他说:“我想历来野史皆蹈一辙,莫如我不借此套者反倒新奇别致,不过只取事体情理罢了……至若离合悲欢与兴衰际遇,则又追踪蹑迹,不敢稍加穿凿,徒为哄人之目而反失其真传者。”[3]这里所说的“事体情理”,所说的“追踪蹑迹”,就是讲要把握住描写对象的活动的轨迹、性格的逻辑和命运的必然。要自然,要天然,不要为了搞笑,为了增加噱头,而离开、歪曲历史事件和历史人物的内在的必然的运动逻辑。当然,编写历史小说、历史剧,为了增加读点和看点,增加艺术情趣,增加艺术效果,有时插科打诨是不可免的,但正如明代戏剧理论家李渔所说:“科诨虽不可少,然非有意为之。如必欲某折之中,插入某科诨一段,或预设某科诨一段,插入某折之中则是觅妓追欢,寻人卖笑,其为笑也不真,其为乐也甚苦矣。妙在水到渠成,天机自露,‘我本无心说笑,谁知笑话逼人来’,斯为科诨之妙境耳。”[4]
那么如何才能达到历史事件和历史人物的内在的必然的运动的逻辑呢?这里就要关注中古代文论提出的另外一个命题,即“设身处地”。创作家一定要调查研究历史事件和历史人物的历史文化的背景的条件下,通过“设身处地”的反复体验,做到与自己所写的历史人物情感同步的状态,与小说或剧本中的人物同甘苦共欢乐,喜怒哀乐也达到相与共。这个时候,不是创作家指挥自己笔下的人物,把自己笔下的人物当傀儡,而是跟着人物的性格走,跟着人物的心理活动走,宁可压抑自己的欲望,也要满足人物的要求。应该知道自己笔下人物的复杂性,也许他会做出出人意表的事情来。《三国演义》第二十六回写曹操抓获关云长,关云长不肯投降,本该杀掉,已取心头之患,偏偏曹操就不杀关云长,者是何道理?这就需要作者有理解曹操的心。毛宗岗评道:“曹操一生奸诈,如鬼如蜮,忽然遇着堂堂正正,凛凛烈烈,皎若青天,明若白日之一人,亦自有珠玉在前,觉吾形秽之愧,遂不觉爱之敬之,不忍杀之。此非曹操之仁,有以容纳关公,乃关公之义,有似折服曹操耳。虽然,吾奇关公,亦奇曹操。以豪杰折服豪杰不奇,以豪杰折服奸雄则奇,以奸雄敬爱豪杰则奇。夫豪杰而至折服奸雄,则是豪杰中又有数之豪杰;奸雄而能敬爱豪杰,则是奸雄中有数之好奸雄。”[5]毛宗岗这段评语,揭示了罗贯中对于自己笔下人物的心理活动的细微曲折的之处有及其深刻的了解,若不是这样来处理人物之间的关系,那么《三国演义》的深微之处,也就散失殆尽了。
作为历史2的史书所记载的材料经过如上的艺术加工,就变成了区别于史书上的材料,这就是历史3了。这历史3才是属于历史文学作品的历史真实,历史题材文学创作所要追求的艺术形象。
从这里我们可以看到,历史学家对于历史小说或历史剧的种种“不符合历史真实”、“不尊重历史真实”、“不符合历史原貌”等一类批评,常常只是对于历史2的迷恋,对于史书的迷恋,并非要小说家或剧作家真的尊重历史1――历史原貌,因为历史本真原貌基本上是不可追寻的。
历史1、历史2和历史3的关系
但是,当我们把历史1(历史原貌)与历史2(史书)区别开来,当我们要求艺术加工让历史2前进到历史3(历史小说或历史剧中的历史真实)的时候,仍不能抹煞历史1、历史2和历史3之间的关系。
对于历史1对于历史小说家或剧作家来说,往往是不可追寻的。但我们又必须认识到,历史小说和历史剧的真正的生活源泉,正是历史1。唯有历史1是才是活水源头。因此真正严肃的历史小说家或剧作家,为了历史真实,总是要通过查阅正史以外的其他历史资料,亦补正史之不足。同时也可以通过对曾经发生过某个历史事件的地点环境的勘探,考古的实物发现,都可以从中看到一些蛛丝马迹,以增加创作历史真实性。如历史事件和历史人物生活的自然环境、地势、地貌,生产力发展的具体状况,尽管今天已经有很大的改变,但其中一定还有不变的成分可供创作时参考。特别是某地的民风民情民俗,从衣食住行到住家细节,都有参考价值,决不可忽略过去。目前我们看到的一些历史小说、历史剧,从地理环境到语言到生活细节,都现代化了,这就不能不影响作品的历史真实。如电视连续剧《汉武大帝》其中的语言过分现代化了,有一些后人才说出的名言,少数民族才有的谚语,今天人刚刚才说了几年的话(如“底线”之类),都出现在剧中,不能不让人感到十分失望。另外据有的历史学家说,《汉武大帝》中关于“精钢”的情节,也完全是失真的。西汉时代,汉朝人的炼铁和炼钢技术都是周围国家无法比拟的。不是匈奴人掌握“精钢”技术封锁汉朝,而是汉朝的炼铁、炼钢技术更高,不得不对匈奴人封锁。造成此种错误的原因之一,就是作者完全忽略了历史1。我反复说过,历史1作为历史的本真原貌是不可整地追寻的,但其中可能还有若干历史的碎片,也许还残留民间,或残留在考古的发现中,艰苦的实地考察和勘探,对考古文物的重视,仍然是必要的,对于文学这种十分注重细节的艺术种类说,如何真实地再现某个历史时期的生活状貌,也是十分重要的。因此,我们说历史1的考察对于历史3的创造,仍然是创作的源泉与基础之一,丝毫也不能忽视。
在从历史2到历史3的过程中,即根据史书所提供的资料进行文学创作的过程中。对于史书的记载,不能不信,又不能全信。如我在前面已经反复说过,史书不完全是客观的,里面夹带了主观成分。因此历史小说家和历史剧作家面对史书必须进行去伪存真、去粗取精的辨析的工作。就历史的框架和时间断限来说,可能史书是很有用的,但对历史事件和人物的评价观点,就有可能存在许多历史局限。中国古代的历史典籍,总是歌颂帝王将相,而批判农民起义及其英雄,把农民起义称为“造反”,把农民起义的代表人物称为“贼”,这完全是历史的颠倒,应该颠倒过来。历史典籍无疑都是历史小说家、历史剧作家十分重视的,但的确存在一个如何阅读的问题,用什么观点去阅读的问题。
另外既然历史3是历史题材文学创作的历史真实,它属于文学范畴,那么如何超越历史典籍,让所描写的内容具有想象性、诗意性,就是很自然的。他们无疑要重视历史典籍,但又不能照搬历史典籍。历史题材的文学创作中的艺术想象,是作品是否成功的一个重要方面。如果说,历史典籍是干枯的记载的话,那么文学家笔下的历史就必须赋予这干枯的记载以鲜活的血和肉,赋予以深邃的灵魂,把某种意义上的死文字变成正在演变着的活的故事。从历史2到历史3的想象就就成为真正的考验。以《三国演义》为例,其中的诸葛亮设计的“空城计”,几乎家喻户晓,无人不知。但这情节完全是“想象”、“虚构”。《三国演义》长篇小说,以及后来改编的电视连续剧,就不是完全照搬历史,如果照搬历史事实,创作就不会成功,《三国演义》(包括小说和电视连续剧)之所以能够获得成功,就在于它有很充分的想象。在这里,小说家和编导何等生动地写出了诸葛亮超人的智慧、沉着、勇气和才能,作者简直对他倾注了无限的赞美之情,但历史的事实如何呢?你查一下《三国志》那个历史书就知道,历史上一些没有的事情,被说得真实可信,甚至绘声绘色。譬如,诸葛亮一生只是在最后一次北伐时,才与司马懿在渭水对峙。诸葛屯兵陕西汉中阳平时,司马懿还是湖北担任荆州都督,根本没有机会与诸葛亮对阵。“空城计”情节完全是作家想象的产物。
从以上所述,我们可以说,历史1作为历史的原貌是历史题材创作的源泉,虽然它往往不可寻觅,但历史小说家和历史剧作家还是要尽力去寻觅,即或只能获得一些碎片,也是有意义的。历史典籍作为历史2是创作的基本资料,当然是重要的,需要十分熟悉,也需要加以辨析,但不能原样照搬。历史题材的文学创作必须有辽阔的诗意想象空间。只有在深度的艺术加工的过程后,我们才会获得作为历史3的历史文学创作的历史真实。
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历史题材创作史识与史观
uio899
回答了这个问题 | 09-09-13
"Historical theme creation, the history of knowledge and historical perspective
The current historical novels is the theme of prosperity, there have been a number of excellent work. As for the historical themes of the drama is almost occupied the prime-time television every day, the emperor is about to make my debut Changba your side, between the shuttle was very lively. These historical novels and dramas, in the current has reached a very high level, from the whole, the short term they are hard to beat.
From a historical theme guiding ideology of writing in general terms, the past history of class struggle, historical idealism and historical materialism, dualistic struggle has been shelved, and presents a variety of history writers and the aesthetic needs of the masses diversity trends. Re-perception of history, capital history, reflect on history, this is the current need of the times. At the same time, in this era of consumption, large said that history, in the history of art shows in the form of access to entertainment, but also in consumer history. Extensive market consumer demand has led to the diversity of historical consumption.
In the historical novel, television shows, in general there are talking about the history of writing and of history, "Joking," writing, deconstruction of history writing, and in Reverse Psychology to rewrite the original novel, or play a variety of modes. This last kind of writing is indeed random adaptation, taste and vulgar, and often lead to a lawsuit, yes, things are not coming to power disc.
Are talking about writing historical themes, including historical novels and historical dramas, in fact a result of the author's philosophy of history, different views of history, while the emergence of different types.
Let's say a more or less adapted to the contemporary history of the people realize the "Sheng-jun Xian Xiang," Writing the history of the story. Widely circulated in the past those "halcyon" and "Sheng-jun Xian Xiang," deeds, naturally attracts a lot of the author's favored by today's depict historical figures such stories and the works can be said to deeply love all walks of life, up to the senior officials, down to ordinary people. The former addition to meeting the aesthetic needs of their own leisure, perhaps even secretly hastened to her own and her book to be a more enlightened ruler Xianxiang. In the latter category of readers to the ancient tradition of coerced the wind flow, the total look forward to have peace and prosperity, but place their hopes in those who Xian Xiang Sheng-jun, eager to let them establish clean politics and society. "Mingjinggaoxuan" This piece of plaque, not just parody of decoration, but it is typical of the majestic symbol of Xian Xiang Sheng-jun; and Gong Wei confidential, Machiavellian contest implicated killings, punitive expeditions, nature is a very pleasing material. These novels, easy to understand, the plot introduced, printing a large amount of very good selling point. All the darkness in today's society, corruption, and the history of the dark, astonishing corruption in line, and now the audience in the history of the drama that those who corrupt the royal relatives, 11 corrupt officials were punished, so in the leisure felt the emotional satisfaction. If we go one step further, you can see the type of fiction and drama, indeed of the many historical events, a large number of fictitious plot to be aesthetic, and people no longer simplifies the reader to read them with great interest the audience to see a very interesting. However, such novel and TV series, leads people to ask what was missing was. Here are some of the historical scenes, the vivid nature of the plot is there, but also a very lively, but it is less then a vivid historical scenes from flowing out of the history of the mean.
The creation of historical novels, we should have a great awareness of the historical connotation, and thus a natural idea to obtain the depth to produce a means to show the higher grade of work, it is with the author's philosophy of history, view of history in close contact with the.
Philosophy of history stems from his historical thorough grasp of the unique. Mentioned here are the so-called complete, did not mean for the historical grasp exhaustive, but rather that through the major historical facts, to be grasped has a unique body of historical recognition, understanding of their role in the entire history of the development of the kind of inherent and unique significance. This is the subject of history by the creation of the constraints. Such as "Three Kingdoms" was staged at the beginning of the word, showing the author's philosophy of history as a history of transmigration, this view of history in the past is extremely common. However, because the novel reflects the complexity of a particular period of history, war, written in a very good-looking, fully demonstrated the character of historical figures Zhiyong, but reveals the depth of the author's philosophy of history. The hanging in the (1888) in Kunming Daguan Lou Weng Sun beard of a couplet by the expressed view of history, they have much more profound. It's the second line said, Yi-Shan kings devoting effort to establish a Weilie Feng Gong, but "Julian painted buildings, the volume is less than Muyu Zhaoyun, then broken stone tablet Canbei, are paid to Cangyanluozhao. Only won a few pestle Shu Chung, semi-river fishing boat lights, two lines of Qiu-yan, a pillow Qingshuang. " Authors of several dynasties come to pick up the Millennium Village in Yunnan Province, the what a sensation, and now they are irretrievably recession of its own. This is the rise and fall of several thousand years of history as a whole to grasp, I heard a deep sigh deep historical mean, from which shows a sharp knowledge of history and the deep sense of history. A number of the Qing Dynasty, "Sheng-jun" in peace and prosperity, in fact for several thousand years of feudal dynasty, the entire decline towards the total period of Huiguangfanzhao. But now some of the historical novel and drama, so that those "Sheng-jun Xian Xiang" in the history of Cangyanlazhao Canbei the gap with the broken stone tablet, the one by one climbed up, went to the body shell dynasty was collapsing in smoke and dust, silk clothing Fresh with the scenery to unlimited interpretation of the Celestial Empire flourishing stories, people deeply moved by them, is simply teach people to appreciate that the "Ping-day-wei, the embellishment some Cui-Yu Danxia. Mo live up to all around fragrant rice, Wan Li Qing sand, 9 Summer Hibiscus, three spring willow "the!
In today's consumerism emerged under the influence of "Joking," the history of television dramas, to the last extreme of the history of class struggle completely turned over a singly, Sheng-jun Xian Xiang stood one by one into the side of the enslaved people came. Such drama, in the contemporary history of consumption is the largest of the impact. At present, for "Joking" There are several claims, one writer who himself said, "Joking" refers to the dramatic form of his narrative of historical figures and stories. The other is the audience's heart, "Joking", meaning the game Joking, its characteristic is the "entertainment delivery"历史题材创作、史识与史观
当前历史题材的小说创作十分繁荣, 出现了一批佳作。至于历史题材的电视剧, 则几乎占领了每天电视的黄金时段, 帝王将相你方唱罢我登场, 往来穿梭, 很是热闹。这些历史小说与电视剧, 在目前都达到了相当高的水平, 从整体上看, 短期内它们都难以被超越。
从历史题材写作的总体指导思想来看,过去的阶级斗争的历史观、历史唯心主义与历史唯物主义二元对立之争已被搁置, 呈现了写作者多样的历史观与群众性的审美需求的多样性趋势。重新感知历史, 大写历史,反思历史, 这是当前时代的需要。同时, 在这个消费的时代, 大说历史, 在历史的艺术形态的展现中获得娱乐, 也是在消费历史。广泛的市场消费需求, 导致了对历史消费的多样性。
在历史小说、电视剧中, 大体有正说的历史写作和对历史“戏说” 的写作, 解构历史的写作, 和以逆反心理来改写原来的小说或是剧作的多种模式。这最后一种的写作, 实为胡乱改编, 品位低俗, 且往往要引发官司, 是些不上台盘的东西。
正说的历史题材的写作, 包括历史小说与历史电视剧, 实际上因作者的史识、史观的不同, 而出现了不同的类型。
我们先说一种大致适应了当今老百姓历史体认的“圣君贤相” 的历史故事写作。过去广为流传的那些“太平盛世”的“圣君贤相”的事迹, 自然格外受到当今不少作者的青睐, 描绘这类历史人物、事迹的作品, 可以说深受各阶层人士的喜爱, 上至高级官僚, 下至普通百姓。前者除了满足自己的消闲审美需求, 大概还要暗暗对号入座, 把自己与书中的明君贤相做个比较。后一类读者则在千年传统流风的裹挟下, 总盼望有个太平盛世, 而把希望寄托在那些圣君贤相身上, 渴望他们出来建立清明的政治与社会。“明镜高悬”这块匾额, 不仅仅是戏仿性的装饰, 却是地道的圣君贤相的威严象征; 而宫闱秘闻、权谋较量、株连杀戮、征战讨伐, 自然是十分讨好的素材。这类小说, 通俗易懂, 情节引人, 印刷量大, 卖点极好。当今社会中的种种黑暗、腐败现象, 与历史中的黑暗、腐败现象惊人的一致, 如今观众在历史戏里看到, 那些贪赃枉法的皇亲国戚、腐败官员一一受到惩处, 于是在休闲娱乐中感到了情绪上的满足。如果我们再深入一步, 可以看到这类小说与电视剧, 确实把众多的历史事件, 大量虚构的情节加以审美化了, 人物也不再简单化了, 读者阅读起来很有兴致, 观众看得很有趣味。不过, 这类小说与电视剧, 总让人感到少了些什么。这里历史场景是有的, 情节的生动性是有的, 而且热闹得很, 但却是少了那么一种从生动的历史场景中流淌出来的历史的意味。
历史小说的创作, 要具有一种意识到的巨大的历史内涵, 和因此而自然获得的思想深度, 产生一种意味, 显示作品的较高品位, 这是与作者的史识、史观密切联系着的。
史识产生于对史实的彻底的、独特的把握中。这里所说的所谓彻底, 不是指对于史料把握的详尽无遗, 而是说透过重大的史实, 对被把握的史料有着独到的体认, 理解到它们在整个历史发展中那种内在的和独特的意义。这是受到创作主体的历史观的制约的。比如《三国演义》开头的那阕词, 显示了作者的一种历史轮回的史观, 这种历史观在过去是极为普遍的。但是小说由于复杂地反映了历史特定时期的战乱, 写的极为好看, 充分显示了历史人物智勇风貌, 而揭示了作者史识的深度。而挂在(1888年) 昆明大观楼的孙髯翁的一副楹联所表述的史观, 则要深刻得多。它的下联说到, 历代帝王费尽移山心力, 建立了伟烈丰功, 但“珠廉画栋, 卷不及暮雨朝云, 便断碣残碑, 都付与苍烟落照。只赢得几杵疏钟, 半江渔火, 两行秋雁, 一枕清霜”。作者意识到, 几千年里历代王朝来收拾云南时, 何等轰轰烈烈, 如今它们自身却无可挽回地衰颓了。这是对几千年的历史兴衰的一种整体的把握, 一声深藏着历史意味的长叹, 从中显示了一种犀利的史识与深沉的历史感。清王朝几位“圣君” 的盛世, 其实已是整个几千年封建王朝走向彻底衰落时期的回光返照。但是现今的一些历史小说与电视剧, 使那些“圣君贤相” 在历史的苍烟落照与断碣残碑的缝隙中, 一个个爬了起来, 弹去了身上的王朝覆灭的烟尘, 锦衣鲜着, 风光无限地演绎着天朝盛世的故事, 让人感佩他们, 简直是在教人欣赏那“苹天苇地, 点缀些翠羽丹霞。莫辜负四围香稻, 万里晴沙, 九夏芙蓉, 三春杨柳”了!
在当今消费主义影响下出现的“戏说”的历史电视剧, 把过去极端化了的阶级斗争的历史观完全翻了一个个儿, 圣君贤相一个个都站到被奴役的人们一边来了。这类电视剧, 在当今的历史消费中影响是最大的了。目前对于“戏说” 有几种说法, 一是编剧人自己说的“戏说”, 是指他以戏剧形式来叙述历史人物与故事。另一种是观众心里的“戏说”, 就是指游戏的戏说, 它的特征就是“娱乐交流”。这种戏说多半是一种针对现实的借古讽今, 其中帝王作为主要人物, 都是群众所熟悉的那么几个, 叙述的事件与种种人物, 则纯属虚构。编剧者有所谓“大事不拘, 小事不虚” 的说法, 而不是相反。这就注定它是一种游戏、娱乐之说。它有意避开历史, 不在乎描写历史重大事件真实与否, 而是借用历史人物作为壳子, 游戏般地、自然是十分投入地充塞着编剧自己的今天的观念, 奉行“现代史都是历史的再现”的原则。其实这一原则, 有时会与历史相合, 有时却相背而行, 如果把它绝对化了, 就成了历史循环论了。
这类“戏说” 的人物性格、特征与活动场地, 由作者随意安排。帝王由宫廷而深入民间, 城镇商栈, 官府旅店, 村舍杂院, 必要时伴有皇宫后院、皇后嫔妃做些点缀。皇帝老子一旦到了平常陌生的下层社会, 自然感到十分新鲜, 戏剧冲突可说俯拾即是。他们生就一副平民心肠, 关心民间疾苦; 明查暗访, 演绎侦探跟踪; 惩治赃官污吏, 大纠冤假错案; 制服恶霸地痞, 屡屡救人于水火; 行侠仗义, 为民伸张正义。由于帝王也是人, 所以又都怜香惜玉, 风流倜傥, 又会来几手拳脚, 可说风度翩翩。于是黄尘古道, 结识风尘女子, 田园酒舍, 偶遇一夜皇后, 花正开, 人未嫁, 可说占尽风流, 格外的动人了。这类戏说, 有人把它称做“古装戏” 确实更为合适些。在这一点上, 戏说也可以成为现实的一面镜子, 让现实中受到压抑的人们舒一口气, 畅笑几下, 松懈一下精神, 这也是有其积极意义的; 同时它也符合老百姓几千年来形成的传统审美情趣, 皇帝老子也是爱民如子, 好打抱不平, 还可看看他们的风流韵事, 也就获得了精神上的满足。
但是悖论也就在这里, 编剧者说, 由于皇帝也是人, 也有“人性”, “帝王性”也是人性, 所以“帝王性”与“人民性”在他身上获得了高度的统一。而且编剧声言, 为了把帝王戏编得好看, 还应对帝王抑恶扬善, 比如要稍稍配上一些他的瑕疵, 但不能过火; 要写得紧张, 但不能让他冒出血腥味来。也就是说, 要为帝皇讳, 要化他们的残酷为一笑, 要在血腥中熏香, 真是爱护备至, 体恤有加。在这种帝王史观支配下写出来的帝王形象, 照剧作者的说法, 一定会受到中国老百姓的欢迎的, 因为帝王就是高峰, 历史就是他们的历史, 老百姓头下枕的就是帝王梦。但是话又要说回来, 枕着帝王梦的老百姓, 在这种帝王戏的熏陶下, 他的帝王梦可能还会百年千年地做下去的!“文化大革命”中的山呼万岁声, 虽然已渐渐远去, 但看来我们现在对于主子、奴才、万岁万万岁的呼声, 又会熟悉与习惯下来的! 一个被封建思想浸润了几千年的民族, 要使他清除自己身上帝王梦、奴才气, 自己当自己的家, 在思想上真正民主化起来, 那是多么困难啊!
在另一种历史小说里, 作者的史识是与现代意识精神有了结合。现代意识精神就是现代性的反思, 一种历史的自我批判。这种反思与批判, 就是在当今全球化的语境中, 探究我国民族、文化趋向衰落的原因, 那种深入我们民族骨髓的几千年的封建意识, 以何种方式流贯于我们今天生活的方方面面, 使我们在一百多年来的世界民族之林中, 难以自立, 受尽屈辱, 以致在一个相当长的时期里, 要生存下来都成了问题。直到今天就是在恢复民族自信和民族元气的过程中, 仍是一路坎坷, 荆棘丛生。
现代意识精神是一种具有历史高度的立足点, 在这一立足点上感受历史的过程, 就会使作家感性地体认到选择哪些历史关键时刻更为紧要, 从而使他们变得更具人文关怀一些, 气度会更宏放一些, 对民族生存的命运的思考会更深沉一些, 历史观会更开阔一些, 会更多民主气息一些。自然, 作家的史识与史观总是渗透于他所感受、体认到的历史的感性生活的, 总是保持了其具体性与过程性的。在《梦断关河》、《曾国藩》等小说里, 我们体验到了现代意识精神, 那种带有历史的深刻反思与批判。《曾国藩》深刻的史识, 表现在时代的潮流将要对行将就木的封建王朝彻底摧毁; 而主人公却想方设法企图在这块千孔百疮的土地上“重建周公孔孟之业”。小说在历史情节的生动性展现中, 显示了那种被意识到的巨大的历史内容的意义, 一种深刻的历史感, 由此获得从中生发出来的深刻的思想性, 从而使得小说阅读起来不仅具有动人的情趣, 而且留下了令人心惊不止、久久不去的历史的意味。这里所说的历史感、历史意味, 并不仅仅是指史实的真实, 环境的渲染, 细节的正确, 而是指一种独特的历史的感受, 它既是历史的, 包含着我们民族昨天、过去的思虑的积淀, 同时又是发展的, 包含着今天的反思与自我认知的意绪, 这是我国的悠长历史传统与现代意识的反思融合而成的一种进取的历史精神。
我们常常期望文学作品能够显示我们的民族文化精神, 历史小说似乎更应如此。但要做到这点, 作者是应具备进取的历史精神的。广大读者、观众的消费的审美需求是应予满足的, 但是他们的趣味在大众文化、影视文化的消极面的影响下感性需求畸形扩张, 感情变得粗俗不堪。在这种情况下, 文学作品、电视剧的编写是投其所好, 助其精神沉沦, 还是应以新的理性精神、人文精神来平衡、抵御粗俗与精神沉沦呢!
在后现代文化思潮影响下出现的所谓新历史主义小说, 是商品经济下的又一种历史消费, 这是一种新潮的历史观, 力图解构以往的权力话语和历史定论, 参与历史的重新探讨。这种历史观大致都认同克罗齐或科林伍德的观点: 历史都是当代的, 即历史是没有自身的纯粹的形态的。所谓历史都是当代人解释的结果, 主体如何解释, 历史就是如何样子, 纯属一些碎片与偶然。确实, 这种历史观提醒人们, 原生态的历史, 随着时间而一起消逝, 记录下来的历史都是掺入了记载者的主观因素在内的, 纯粹的客观的历史记载是不存在的, 所以历史都是当代的, 由当代人说了算。这种历史观对于我们了解历史文献可信到什么程度是有启发作用的, 一个历史事件有时会有不同的记载与说法, 需要进行去伪存真的工作。不过, 这种历史观实际上把历史记录中的主观性绝对化了, 如果说历史不过是些人们记忆的碎片, 其结果就把历史的客观性否定掉了。其实, 重大的历史事件的客观性是一种真实的存在, 在其自身的发展中有其自己的规定性, 历史并不是那种互不相关的纯粹的碎片, 如果一旦它失去了自身客观的规定性, 那还有什么历史事件可言。比如, 第二次世界大战、日本侵华战争、“文化大革命”, 历史记载者的主观性即使多样, 角度取说不同, 但能改变它们的客观存在的过程和性质的吗?
后现代文化思潮认为, 历史不过是一堆混沌的现象, 并无规律可循, 其主导思想是在破除本质主义的历史观, 突出偶然因素, 把人与人的关系, 定位于人性本能因素, 重找历史动因, 重说历史现象。在这类思潮影响下的小说的作者, 大体认同这种历史观念, 于是把人的性、性本能、欲望、侵犯本能、暴力, 当作历史事件的动因。在他们的作品里, 战争、屠杀、暴力、血腥、残忍、酷刑、欲望、善良、性本能表现, 对于不同国家、集团的人群、人物来说, 都是没有区分的。文学的叙述, 不过是对不同人群的不同机缘巧合, 进行随意组合, 这种表述掺和着作者自己关于欲望、血腥、暴力、性本能的独特的奇思构想, 写得津津有味。而在评论家那里, 照例会赋予这类作品具有何等何等的深刻的文化内涵, 艺术感觉如何如何的精细、创新, 等等。确实, 历史过程中存在着大量的碎片式的偶然。性本能、肉体欲望、侵犯性本能, 还真的是不少事件发生的偶然动因与后果。比如现今社会上的大量情杀与凶杀, 它们的动因往往是由那些性本能、性侵犯、肉体欲望构成的, 是事件发生原因的直接方面。但是如果作为历史事件, 实际上还有处于隐蔽状态的间接的深层的社会因素, 有时却是主要的因素。比如近期发动的侵略战争, 有人说是出于个人好战心理、暴力本能、家属复仇心理, 等等。但是仔细一想, 这战争的动因不明明就是为了掠夺他国资源、控制他国政治与经济命脉、强迫他国接受所谓普世主义的文化原则吗! 自然, 我们也要认真地看到我国作者们的无奈与苦衷。一般说来, 当权力控制着历史的时候, 历史确实像一个可以被随意打扮的小姑娘, 成了一些握有权力话语的人士说了算的东西。主张唯物史观, 但实施的往往是唯心史观。从历史上看, 掩盖历史丑恶事实的人, 总是和丑恶事件以及和个人利益有联系的人。事实上那些被歪曲了的历史事件, 以后还会被纠正过来, 历史总是这样无情的。这样, 是现实自身首先解构了历史, 历史确实成了一种当代一些人的权力表述, 现实奉行了随心所欲的历史相对主义。在这种意义上, 一切历史都是当代史的那种理论, 还真是派了用场。因此文学中的混沌式的历史写作, 不具涵义的碎片式的历史写作, 缺乏符号意义的纯粹偶然性的写作, 不过是对现实的一种回应与投影, 一种多样化的历史消费的形式而已, 历史被多种形式消费着。
历史与现实的形态总是感性的, 充满了偶然的, 但是它们之间的相互联系的轨迹依然可寻。写作一旦使那种无处不在的、生动的偶然完全失去了符号的意义与所指, 那么这类写作就不过是让人趣味索然的一种写作策略的表现。这类小说的致命之处在于, 它们的作者玩得投入, 而读者人数极少, 只有少数几位智力高的评论家, 乐此不疲地对于这类写作策略津津乐道。作为历史小说的先锋实验来说, 它们太相信话语能指的游戏功能了, 结果聪明的、确实有相当威力的能指, 在其重找历史的动因中, 固然消解了历史, 但同时也就耗尽了自己以及自己存在的艺术形式。
于是历史消费的快乐, 也就变成了历史消解的无奈!
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论历史文学独特的语言媒介系统兼谈20世纪现代主义历史文学的
uio899
回答了这个问题 | 09-09-13
"On the history of literature and the unique medium of the system - and to talk about the 20th century, the history of literature of modernism
A special form of "historical / modern language media
Number of quite good in the history of literary criticism and research, language and even the media is the least of their talk about a topic completely obscured. This is perhaps because the traditional way of thinking the concept of language tools that are not unrelated, because by that point of view of language tools to study the medium of literature, natural history than to study its ideological content and authenticity of a more meaningful; but I am afraid what is more important history of literary language media system is a special complex and difficult to grasp, it was ancient or modern genre features classically derived "historical / modern language media, so that our inherent research methods and critical theory can not help but seem a little embarrassed, and even the appearance of a loss in varying degrees of aphasia.
Describing the history of literature has become a past "history", according to the principle of theory of reflection, of course, need to adopt a corresponding "history" of the language, particularly those filled with contemporary flavor bogey "modern" language. In a sense, we may even think that only using part of "history" of the language to reflect the contents of the history of life it is considered completely loyal to the historical truth. However, when we will be this proposition into specific context of the history and reality to be examined when the felt it is complex. First of all, the history of the language of pure hard to obtain and can not reproduce. Authors for the creation of material mostly from the history books, but the history books is not the same as real, full of history. It recorded historical nature of things, due to the difficulty of writing Chinese characters and material conditions, but also because of the privileged monopoly of the Chinese writing system of symbols and oral sound system of symbols has long been the existence of serious, "Wen and the words separation "phenomenon; it can not be a true" history of language ", while the incorporation of varying degrees on a number of" non-historical "factors. According to Hu in the "History of vernacular literature," and Lu Xun in "outside the text且介亭杂文talk about" the view, Chinese writing system as early as the Han Emperor Wu of the era had been "dead" has gone, it is in fact a reality at that time spoken some of the "Summary", and more after the gap of the greater distance from the spoken language, and gradually formed a set of rigid written vocabulary and grammar patterns. In fact, the latter was in plain language precisely what was the usual real terms, at great length the former so-called "archaisms", even if not to say contrary to literary pen flower of the "processing to create", but also at least a rigid type of of the lineage. Secondly, say the least, even if a writer is truly in his works the use of "history" of the language, apart from a few historians, anthropologists, archaeologists, can be several people can read, understood? Notes, language as human beings to create a special media tool, it is a history with the ability to change the historical evolution. A number of symbols was originally the name of the constant, daily, it may become a quasi-A, be A or even non-A's name. As for the signs of wear and tear, dislocation, transformed for the new derivative word, it is not uncommon phenomena. Shakespeare's time in English, even today, the British, who, reading together is also not an easy task. One of Confucius's "Analects of Confucius", there is no certain knowledge of the ancient Chinese, we should probably really a bit difficult miles of them are listed. If our history, literature and writers in order to obtain the true sense of the so-called historical truth and so followed suit, selling to the readers of such language, then one can only look on in despair. Hugo On the absolute nature of artistic creation can not be had in order to imitate Corneille's "Cid" as an example played a very vivid metaphor. He said: We assume that a proposition is absolutely imitate the natural person who, when he see the "Cantar de Mio Cid" and the performances will surely ask: "how?" Cantar de Mio Cid, "the characters speak is also used poetry! Using poetry to speak is not natural. "" Well, you asked him how should I say? "" use the prose. "" Well, on the prose. "After several moments, he also asked:" how, "Cid," the characters speak French, then !, "" So the talk about such things? "" naturally calls for dramatis personae speak their own language, he could only speak Spanish. "" Then we will also not understand the point, however, is according to you. " Do you think it will find fault with it? No, do not speak Spanish at 10, he would stand up and asked to speak on stage who is not a true Cid Cid I ... ... ① Here, the ridiculous paradox reasoning also reveals the historical fact of non-literary language "history" of non-absurdity and not unreasonable to expect.
That said, the history of literary language media, whether on the use of a purely modern vernacular, and other modern subjects of the linguistic form there is no difference? Probably can not come to that conclusion. The reason is simple, modern language belongs to the scope of modern culture, and its semantics, language sense, voice, language potential, language rules, after all, the era of today, rather than the product of past history, and with, including ideology, moral values of modern life, including appropriate content of the. As we all know, language, thinking and communication as a symbolic system, which was originally used to refer to be reflected on the object with the object function. Although it is not the object itself, linguistic symbols, but it is from the ultimate sense, after all, is a "real abstraction" (Pavlov language), is the meaning of the carrier; and meaning is a reflection of the object is a manifestation of the concept of the object, Therefore, it is the same object there is some connection between. It is precisely because language has the above characteristics, in particular, is a symbol, meaning, and the alleged ternary relations is characterized by the unity of ternary one and therefore I writer, when carrying out the historical literature, in order to be able to pass the information symbol to carry the historical objects of the object meaning, a meaning of existence of the material form of sensibility, it can not use the real "modern" sense of the language media, especially those who have only the contents of today's life, and has a specific value to point to the meaning of the language medium. Such as "line struggle" "class analysis" "information feedback" "feature vector" "renting," "re-employment" and so on. This medium of reason can not be used, is due as a signal transmission to the readers or viewers, and its clear and defined directional and can only motivates people to them and the content of modern life, a direct linkage, resulting in aesthetic psychological It is also impossible to attract the proper sense of history, resulting in signs and significance of"论历史文学独特的语言媒介系统——兼谈20世纪现代主义历史文学的
一、特殊形态的“历史/现代语媒
在为数颇丰的历史文学评论和研究中,语言媒介是其谈论最少以至完全被遮蔽的一个话题。这可能跟传统的语言工具说的思维观念不无关系,因为按语言工具说的观点来看,研究历史文学的语言媒介自然不如研究其思想内容和真实性更有意义;但更主要的恐怕还是在于历史文学语言媒介系统的特殊复杂和不易把握,它的现代人写古或拟古的文类特征所派生的“历史/ 现代的语媒,使我们固有的研究方法和批评理论不免显得有些尴尬,乃至程度不同地出现某种不知所措的失语。
历史文学描写的是业已成为往事的“历史”,按照反映论的原理,当然需要采用一种与之相适应的“历史化”的语言,而尤忌那种充满当下气息的“现代化”语言。从某种意义上,我们甚至认为只有用属于“历史化”的语言来体现历史的生活内容才算是完全忠于历史真实。然而当我们将这个命题纳入具体的历史和现实语境中加以审视时,就感到它的复杂。首先,纯粹的历史化的语言很难求得,也无法复现。作者用以创作的素材大多来自史书,但史书并不等同于真实、完全的历史。它所记录下来的史料性的东西,由于汉字的难写及物质条件的限制,同时也由于特权者的垄断,中国的书面文字符号系统与口头声音符号系统早就存在着严重的“文与言分家”的现象;它也不可能是真正的“历史语言”,而程度不等地掺入了许多“非历史”的因素。根据胡适在《白话文学史》和鲁迅在《且介亭杂文门外文谈》的看法,汉语书面文字系统早在汉武帝时代就已经“死”去了, 它事实上只是当时现实口语的某些“摘要”, 并且愈后与口语的距离拉得愈大, 逐渐形成了一套僵死的书面语汇和文法模式。其实, 后者那通俗易懂的语言恰恰是当时惯常的真实用语, 而前者的连篇累牍的所谓“之乎者也”, 即使不说是出乎文人笔下生花的“加工创造”, 也起码是一种僵化类型化的沿袭。其次, 退一步说, 就算是作家在作品中真正使用“历史”的语言, 除了少数的历史学家、人类学家、考古学家外, 能有几人看得懂、听得懂? 须知, 语言作为人类创造的一种特殊的媒介工具, 它是具有随历史而变的历史演变能力的。一些符号本来是A 的名称, 天长日久, 就有可能变成了准A 、拟A 甚至非A 的名称。至于符号的磨损、错位, 蜕变为新的衍生词, 那就更是屡见不鲜的现象。莎士比亚时代的英语, 即使对今天的英国人来说, 读解起来也非易事。一部孔子的《论语》, 没有一定的古汉语的知识, 要看下去恐怕还真有点吃力哩。如果我们的历史文学作家为了求得所谓的真正意义上的历史真实而依此如法炮制, 将这类语言兜售给读者, 那么人们只好干瞪眼。雨果在谈到艺术创作不能摹仿绝对自然时曾以高乃依的《熙德》为例打过一个很生动的比喻。他说: 我们假设一个主张绝对摹仿自然的人, 当他看到《熙德》的演出时一定会问: “ 怎么? 《熙德》的人物说话也用诗! 用诗说话是不自然的。”“那么, 你要他怎么说呢?”“要用散文。”“好, 就用散文。”过一会, 他又要问了:“怎么,《熙德》的人物讲的是法国话! ”“那么该讲什么话呢? ”“自然要求剧中人讲本国语言, 只能讲他的西班牙语。”“那我们就会一点也听不懂了, 不过, 还是依你的。”你以为挑剔就会了吗? 不, 西班牙语还没有讲上十句, 他又会站起来并且质问这位在台上说话的熙德是不是真正的熙德本人……①这里, 可笑悖谬的推论实际上也就揭示了历史文学语言非“历史化”不可的悖谬和不近情理。
如此说来, 历史文学语言媒介是否就采用纯粹的现代白话, 与其它现代题材的语言形态没有任何区别呢? 恐怕也不能得出这样的结论。道理很简单, 现代语言属于现代文化的范畴, 它的语义、语感、语态、语势、语规毕竟是今天时代而不是过去历史的产物, 并与包括意识形态、道德观念在内的现代生活内容相适的。众所周知, 语言作为思维和交流的一种符号系统, 它原本就具有用来指称被反映客体对象的功能。语言符号虽不是客体本身, 但它从终极意义上说毕竟是“现实的抽象化”(巴甫洛夫语), 是意义的载体; 而意义则是客体的反映, 是客体的观念表现形式, 所以, 它同客体之间存在着一定的联系。正因为语言具有如上的特点, 尤其是具有符号、意义和指称的三元关系, 是三元一体的统一的特点, 故而作家在进行历史文学创作时, 为使符号携带的信息能传递历史客体对象的意义, 成为意义存在的感性物质形式, 那就不能使用真正“现代”意义上的语言媒介, 特别是那些惟有今天生活内容才有的、具有特定价值指向意义的语言媒介。如“路线斗争”“阶级分析”“信息反馈”“功能向量”“租赁经营”“重新就业”等等。这样的语言媒介之所以不能用, 乃是因为作为一种信号输送给读者或观众, 它的鲜明而确定的指向性, 只能触动人们将它们和现代生活内容直接挂钩联系, 从而在审美心理上一点也引不起应有的历史感, 造成符号和意义、指称的截然分离。人们常常批评的历史文学的“现代化”倾向, 从语言符号角度看, 其理即此。据有篇评论文章介绍, 郭沫若的《棠棣之花》在当年演出时曾有过这么一件轶事: 当剧中人盲叟在第四幕说道: “呵, 我还是吃口馒头吧”, 结果引得哄堂大笑, “而在这句话以前的整幕情绪是很凄凉哀静的。”②观众为什么“哄堂大笑”呢? 这里的原因主要就是语言符号太“现代化”的缘故。因为我们知道, 任何一个语言现象, 当它作为由人设定的一种符号系统纳入社会媒介交流机制时, 就“不仅在逻辑上存在或抽象地存在”着, 它同时“也有心理上的存在”③。由于这个原因, 语言总是有它一定的规约性、指向性和价值负荷。超越了这个限度,它就要在“心理上、情感上”给人们造成一种失真之感,使其只能产生“伪指称”的功能效果。郭沫若在总结自己历史剧创作经验时,曾对历史文学语言如何处理历史与现代关系发表了相当精辟的见解。他认为历史文学语言“以古今能够共通的最为理想”,“古语不通于今的非万不得已不能用,用时还须在口头或形象上加以解释。今语为古所无的则断乎不能用,用了只是成为文明戏或滑稽戏而已。”郭老一方面反对“用绝对的历史语言”,一方面又提出多少要有限制,应该掺进一些古语或文言。他总的主张是:历史文学的“ 根干是现代语, .. 但是现代的新名词和语汇,则绝对不能使用。”④另一位著名历史剧作家陈白尘也说过相类似的话,他早在1937 年创作《金田村》的时候,就颇有意味地将历史文学语言媒介归纳为“ 历史语言= 现代语言-现代术语、名词+ 农民语言的朴质、简洁+ 某一特定时期的术语、词汇”。⑤郭沫若、陈白尘的意见很值得重视,它可以视作是对我们上述所说的历史文学语言特性的带有普遍意义的一个概括。如果将其归纳总结,那它的基本图式就是:
历史文学语言= 现代白话文-现代熟悉的特定术语词汇+ 过去陌生的特定历史术语词汇
不是纯粹的现代语,也不是一味的文言文,而是在现代语的基础上减去一些今天现代人非常熟悉的习惯用语,加上一些过去特有的名词术语,这大概就是历史文学语言具体化的特殊形式, 即我们这里所说的独特的“历史/ 现代”的语言形态。这种语言形态,从审美感知上说,它主要通过熟悉的陌生化、远近的双重性,一方面使人感到是亲切贴近的;另一方面又使人感到是陌生新奇的,从而在艺术欣赏时既能达到感情与共而又处处隐伏历史距离的特殊美感。从语言结构上说,这主要是采取对文言古语融化的方式:把历史用语中那些仍旧具有生命力的词汇、语句融化在现代白话文中,使之成为白话文生命血脉的有机组成部分,用赫尔扎洛娃在捷克《文学月报》召开的一次“ 历史文学圆桌座谈会”的话来讲,就是“古语、罕用词、带时代色彩的语词等用在历史长篇小说中是必要的,有利于制造气氛。……不生吞活剥地使用古词、罕用词, 而是用得恰到好处,同整个艺术风格协调,这也是长篇小说的艺术。”⑥当然,有必要说明,这里所谓的“历史/ 现代”形态的语言属于“第二自然”形态的一种语言,并非为历史所实有。即是说,它是作家人工创造出来的、被拟古化装了的一种假定的“历史语言”。明明反映的是历史的生活内容,却要用“历史/ 现代”形态的语言来加以表现,这就是历史文学语言媒介的独特之处。
迄今以来的创作实践也充分证实历史文学语言的确具有自身的特殊性,对它的准确把握与否往往给整部作品的真实性与艺术价值带来很大的影响。电影《林则徐》的编剧之一吕宕在一篇短文中谈到前些年看到一个《孟尝君》史剧的排演,编导者竟让胸有大才而不得其用的食客冯 在舞台上大唱其“长铗归来兮,食无鱼! 长铗归来兮,出无车! 长铗归来兮,无以为家”之类的词句,弄得观众互相错愕,不知所云。与吕宕所说的完全相反,笔者也曾读到一部描写汉代清官董宣的长篇小说,该书有颇多地方竟让这位一千九百年前的封建官吏满口说出:“真对不起! 请原谅”“少受精神折磨”,“作好精神准备”“在今后的生活道路上……对我会产生无穷无尽的力量”等新鲜词儿。这两种现象看似对立,但实质并无二致,都反映了对历史文学语言媒介独特性认识和把握的不当:前者,它的问题主要在于向读者输送构成形象的信息时, 由于语言过分“稽古”不可解达不到应有的阈值,给他们本来愉悦易解的审美接受人为地增设翳障。因为“达不到”,它当然也就不能有效地引发读者的心理感应,使他们借运语言信息来调动自己的感性经验去充实、构造生动的艺术形象。后者,其问题的症结则是这些语言内涵的鲜明而确定的指向性,它只能触动和诱使读者将它和现实生活内容直接挂钩联系,从而在审美心理上一点也引不起应有的历史感,造成符号和意义、指称的截然分离。人们经常批评的历史文学“现代化”倾向所指即此。从语言角度讲,就是将历史文学的以现代白话为基础的这个正确命题推向极端,简单视作“现代/现代”形态而没有把它纳入“历史/现代”的语言机制中进行有约束的创作。它与前面所说的语言不适当地被“稽古”,也即将历史文学语言的历史化简单看成是“历史/历史”形态一样,都是不可取的。
大概是有鉴于此,我们见到的不少现当代历史文学作家,特别是有追求、有成就的作家,都无不高度重视其语言媒介的特殊性,并通过多种途径,在自己的作品中营建各具个性化的“历史/现代”形态的语言世界。如姚雪垠、凌力、杨书案有意引进古典诗词曲赋碑铭(《李自成》、《九月菊》);端木蕻良、徐兴业、二月河大量化入当时的方言俗语( 《金瓯缺》、《少年天子》、《曹雪芹》、《雍正皇帝》);蒋和森、顾汶光、唐浩明的描写语言古朴典雅,明显融润着文言古文的韵味(《天国恨》、《风萧萧》、《曾国藩》);刘斯奋富有意味地将纯粹的现代文、明清白话小说中的口语和浅近的文言糅为一体(《白门柳》);而历史剧领域中的老一辈作家曹禺、陈白尘,他们的语言半文半白、铿锵简洁,不仅符合人物的身份和个性,而且听来朗朗上口,黯契戏剧现场接受的特点。理想的历史文学语言就不是这样,它从不单向极化地将自我锁定在“历史”或“现代”的某一端,而是富有意味地在古今之间寻求“恰当的结合”或曰进行“远近感知的高度融合”,以使读者和观众进入一个理想的“历史幻境”之中,在与对象感情与共、充分理解的同时又保持必要的历史距离。⑦
二、语言媒介与作家的艺术自觉
当然,以上所说的“历史/现代”形态的语言仅仅是历史文学语媒系统的“一个最简单的基本公式”(陈白尘语),在实际的创作过程中,情况要复杂得多。这倒不尽是理论与实践有时也会错位,更重要的则在于要真正按这个公式的主张付之实践,还要碰到如下几个复杂的环节、复杂的因素;而这一切,如果不得力于作家艺术自觉的积极参与,那最终也是无法得以转化完成的。
首先,历史文学语言媒介的复杂表现在文体之间的差异,由于文体的形式规范不同,同样是语言,小说、戏剧、影视,它们在具体运用时彼此是有区别的。小说是阅读的艺术,它可以细细咀嚼,可以反复玩味;可以随时放下,也可以随时拿起,这都无碍于读者的艺术接受。而戏剧与影视是临场观赏的艺术,它是顺流直下,一泻千里,以直观和连续的形式直接显影于舞台和银幕,不能有半刻的停顿,所以它在语言方面与小说的要求也是有所不同的。李渔说:“曲文之词采,与诗文之词采非但不同,且要判然相反。何也?诗文之词采贵典雅而贱粗俗,宜蕴藉而忌分明;词曲不然,话则本之街谈巷议,事则取其直说明言。凡读传奇而有令人费解,或初阅不见其佳,深思而后得其意之所在者,便非绝妙好词。”⑧李渔斯论甚妙,他在这里实际上提出了小说(广义的诗文)与戏剧(那时还没有影视)的文体自觉的问题。确实,这对我们历史文学作家怎样把握和用好语言关系极大。郭沫若的《司马迁发愤》写司马迁正在赶写《史记》最后一篇《太史公自叙传》时与来访的益州刺史任少卿交谈的一段情节。文章结尾处,作者直接抄引了《史记·太史公自叙传》中一段颇有点长的文言文入书:“惜西伯拘 里,演《周易》。孔子厄陈蔡,作《春秋》,屈原放逐,著《离骚》……”作为文字,我们读到这里可能有点拗,但这无关紧要, 你可以放慢节奏,细嚼慢品嘛;更重要的是通过这段文言,它给予我们以特有的历史感。这就是小说给我们的便利。所以,我们不仅不应责怪郭老,反要感激他。至于戏剧、影视就不允许这样。如果它们的作者为了求得历史感,一味效仿小说的“典雅”“蕴藉”而不“直说明言”,那么效果就像前面举例的《孟尝君》一样,只会令观众如坠云雾之中;真则真矣,但历史感也就在这莫名其妙中被化为乌有。
当然,如果再加分辨,戏剧与影视的语言也是不尽相同的。黑格尔在《美学》中批评歌德的《葛兹·封·伯利兴根》写得太平常琐细,就戏剧而言,他的批评是对的;但如果论影视文学(此处小说亦然),这位先哲大师的话就不免显得有些武断,歌德的描写很可能是生活化细节化的一个精彩片断。道理相同而事例相反,莎士比亚饮誉世界文坛的优秀史剧,如果将它原封不动地搬到影视画面中来,那即使最精彩的对话,也有可能成为累赘。美国斯坦利·梭罗门在他的《电影的观念》一书中说得好:“我们会以为,把莎士比亚的剧本改编成的影片即使达不到伟大的水平,至少在一个方面不会有问题:对话总是出色的。实际上,只要我们研究半打最优秀的莎士比亚影片的话,我们就会发现它们实在平常得让人吃惊。实际情况是这些影片中的对话非但不能起好作用,往往还是影片最糟的部分。”他分析道:这里的原因主要是莎翁立足于戏剧审美规范的写法,他能在人物的对话中造成深刻的环境感,而电影作为视觉形象是从来不需要这种“暗示性对话的”⑨。梭罗门的意见相当精辟。这说明历史文学语言媒介的运用光凭一个抽象的公式并不解决问题,它必须被纳入各自的文体机制中才能有望成功。
其次,历史文学语言媒介的运用与叙述对象亦有关系。我们所讲的语言只是一种大而笼统的说法,按叙事学的分析,其实可分叙述语言和作品人物语言两个层面。叙述语言就是作者自我的语言,它在作品中是被用来描写解释和抒情之用的,塔斯基把它叫作“元语言”;作品人物语言虽然也是作者赋予的,但它不是作者自我的语言,而是作者所创造的人物他我的语言。它在作品中是被用来直接表现描写对象的,经常以人物对白和独白方式展开,塔斯基把它叫作“对象语言”。这两个层面的语言是不能混淆的。它们的性质和功能也不同。因此作家在描写和运用时就要有所区别。章学诚在历史文学真实性问题上讲过一些为人所诟的话,但这番意见我们得刮目相待:“叙事之文,作者之言也,为文为质,为其所欲,期如其事而已;记言之文,则非作者之言也,期于适如其人之言,非作者所能自主也。”⑩历史文学语言的道理亦然。叙述语言因系“作者之言”,是作者作为第三人称身分向读者讲述的语言,虽然它在描写时有一个和作者身份相符、同人物语言协调的问题,但它随机性毕竟比较大,自主权掌握在作家手中。人物语言的情况就不是这样,它是作品里特定历史环境中特定人物在向我们发言,因此,它的要求和规范相应就严格得多,不能听凭作者随意摆布。对于他们,作者固然不能让春秋时代的人满口讲春秋时代的话,但他得必须谨防那些熟悉的新名词、新术语从他们嘴里溜出。这里容不得半点含糊的。我们经常所说的历史文学“现代化”,就是指的“人物语言”而不是“叙述语言”的现代化。叙述语言一般是不会现代化的,也很少有现代化。这从近年来的有关历史文学作品中也不难看出。例如前文举到的那些诸如“真对不起! 请原谅”之类的话,就是属于“人物语言”方面的问题。指出这一点有其必要,它可以使我们作家在创作时避免犯塔斯基所说的“语义悖论”的错误,更加灵活而又更加具体地将历史文学的“历史/现代”语媒付之实践,从而避去许多不必要的忧虑和顾忌,使作品达到“历史感”和“现实感”的有机统一。事实上,现有不少历史文学作家也是这样做的,他们的实践已为我们的观点提供了很好的依据。如刘斯奋的《白门柳》就将叙述语言和人物语言富有意味地区分开来:前者用现代白话文,后者根据场合和具体情况, 或借鉴明清白话小说中的口语, 或赋之于浅近的文言。两套语言交替使用, 显得既雅且俗, 恰倒好处, 颇受人们的赞誉。
再次, 历史文学语媒的运用还有一个审美态度和创作方法之差的问题。这也需要作家自觉意识的合力相濡。再现与表现、写实与主情、现实主义与浪漫主义, 在语感、语态、语调、语势诸方面不可能全然一样。前者语言载体中实感性、质感性的含量比较大, 基本与生活保持“同构”关系。它们的语言形式一般比较自然质朴, 而又小心地偏开现代语一点, 力求带些“古味”, 使人们从中领享到一种陌生美, 一种饱含历史汁液的纪实美, 其语言文字的主要功用形态是叙述和描写。后者的载体中更多是情感性、性灵性的内涵, 它与生活的关系是呈“ 异构”型的。语言文字未必不拟古化装, 但错彩镂金, 激情飞扬, 在视觉上能给人以很强烈的诗意冲激力。渗透在语言中的主体情感或感觉, 在比例上超过了客体的素描。文学史上, 托尔斯泰与莎士比亚, 福楼拜与雨果, 鲁迅与郭沫若, 曹禺与阳翰生, 森鸥外、井上靖与菊池宽、芥川龙之介, 他们的语媒大体就分属于这两种类型。我国新时期的不少历史小说也有这个区别。比如同是描写黄巢起义, 蒋和森与杨书案在语言风格包括外在语态和内在语涵上都互不相同, 各呈异彩。他们一个言简意赅, 典雅的语言外壳之内隐匿着相当实在厚重的客观涵量, 纪“实”的倾向在字里行间凸现得相当鲜明; 另一个则清字丽句, 在诗样的语言形式中涌动着诗样的意境, 抒情特征涵盖了一切。但都各尽其妙也各呈其能, 彼此实在是很难分出高下。因为他们是属于两种不同的审美方式。如果我们无视这一点, 简单地拿“历史/ 现代”公式去套, 那么就很有可能得出扬此抑彼或扬彼抑此的结论, 甚至作出截然错误的评判, 就像托翁对待莎翁那样。这对造就历史文学创作多元格局的形式, 进一步推动它的繁荣和发展, 无疑是不利的。伍尔夫指出: 批评家应该站在作家的角度, 用作者的透视方法来观察作品。11 我们反对对历史文学语言一刀切,主张与作者各自的审美个性审美态度审美方式联系考虑也就是这个道理。
三、现代主义历史文学的语言实验
说到历史文学的语言媒介系统, 还不能不提现代主义在这方面所作的探索, 这是2 0 世纪历史文学创作的一个新的景观, 新的亮点。毫无疑问, 这种现代主义形态的语言, 不同于上述的“历史/ 现代”的语媒, 带有明显的反逻辑反规范的特点。它也不再只是把语言看成是历史文学的一种媒介和手段, 而是将其视作是与创作的目的意图密切相关的独立本体, 赋予作家更自由地使用语言和探索语言的权力。我们说, 现实主义历史文学语言媒介的功用形态主要是被当作叙述和描写之用, 其信息含量中充满了实感性、质感性; 浪漫主义历史文学语言媒介的功用形态更多地被用来宣泄和抒怀之用, 其符号载体浸透了情绪性、性灵性; 但现代主义历史文学则不同, 它的“形”与“象”既不求与历史生活“同步”式的“本来如此”, 也不求与历史生活“理想”型的“应当如此”, 而是把它推向荒诞和变形, 但求“ 幻觉如此”。现代主义历史文学的这种“非常态”写作虽然也是作者创造的一种“第二自然”, 但它却突出地体现了语言自由穿越于“历史”与“现代”而又同时向彼此开放的现代语言观, 故其语言外壳往往以远离历史、超越历史的幻化面貌出现, 语象、语势、语态幽默、神奇、夸张, 充满怪诞和幻想。反映在创作上自然也就不再拘泥于传统历史文学的那种“历史/现代”常态, 而使作品的语言天马行空, 获得了前所未有的高度自由, 文本也因此具有强烈的语言实验的先锋意识。
就内容和性质而论, 现代主义历史文学的语言实验主要分以下三种类型:
(1) 古今式。非常陌生的历史语言和非常熟悉的现代语言有意错叠在一起,融古今于一体。时间的观念、空间的顺序完全被打破打乱了。古语就是今语,今语就是古语。为我们常态不允许的新名词、新术语在这里广泛得到运用,成串成串地从古人嘴里冒出。典型的例子莫过于鲁迅的《理水》,明明是蒙昧洪荒的远古时代,却让其语言载体中引进“古貌林”、“好杜有图”、“面包”、“饮料”、“维他命W”“碘质”,这就是对传统“常态”的一种反叛。它不仅大大逸出了人们经常的经验和美感范围,于已知实际生活所没有,就是按照亚里斯多德的可然律必然律原则也解释不通。十分有意思的是,这些古今式的语言媒介,有的纯粹是作者杜撰出来的,也有的“古”“今”两者(特别是“今”) 都有特定的事实指谓性,符号内含的信息相当实在。这样就形成了非常奇特的效果,它能由此把人诱入一个虚虚实实、实实虚虚,充满幽默滑稽、怪诞可笑的艺术幻境中,并激发起一种庄严的思索和神奇的遐想。这种情况像《理水》中对顾颉刚、林语堂等言语的模拟套引,便可见一斑。
(2) 魔幻式。如果说古今式是在纵向时序意义上对“ 常态”语言的一种反叛,那么魔幻式则是就横向类别性质对“常态”语言的一种突破。当然魔幻式常常又是古今式的。称为“魔幻”, 顾名思义,可想它的语言载体中,非人类的神魔幻想的信息含量是比较重的。的确,这正是魔幻式作品语言媒介的基本表象特征。此类作品如果往上追溯,可以说自古有之。歌德的《浮士德》便明显具有这样的表征。不过,作为一种趋同性的创作现象或文学潮流,那还是近几十年的事。而且在当今是愈来愈自觉、愈来愈成熟了。举例来说,如荣获1984年苏联列宁奖(最高奖) 的《普罗米修斯,别扔掉火种》诗剧,这里人神魔、神话传说与现在融合在一起,形成了一种奇妙的新格局。普罗米修斯犯天界禁律,窃火于人间,但却反被麻木愚昧的人类所拒绝;于是, 神与神之间的冲突就同神与人之间的冲突纠缠在一起,人神界限被打破了,作品的语言变得荒诞奇特。普罗米修斯对着地界的众人说“我的价值”、“我的智慧”;而人类之长却也可以报之于“我不需要智慧,而需要军队”之类的答词。还有像关于穿超短裙“不要脸”的对话,关于垃圾乱丢“污染环境”的对话等等,这些与全剧虽属幻化但却具有辛辣讽喻意味的故事情节交织在一起,典型地体现了魔幻式历史文学语言媒介的特色。
(3) 心理式。遵循心理活动、意识流程的规律来进行描写,这是此类作品的显著特点。为此,与之相应的,它们也就不能不赋予语言以俱足的心理性、意识性的因素。施蛰存的《石秀》取材于《水浒》第44 至46 回有关石秀的故事情节,但因为作者采用弗洛伊德式的心理解剖,小说中不仅原有的貌态作了根本改变,而且先前的实感性序列性很强的语言外壳也变得虚秘幽晦、错乱颠倒。全文凭借语言符号所呈现出来的图像是石秀狂热的性苦闷和性变态心理。含义虽然不深,但剖析的精细、描写的新奇,也可算作一绝。这对《水浒》的传统作法,无疑也是一种大胆的变形。此外,像新时期的历史长篇《苦海》(伯阳) 、《高阳公主》、《上官婉儿》(赵玫) 等也都具有类似的特点。
比较而论,在这三种类型的历史文学语言媒介系统中,心理式的人们容易理解。因为按照格式塔心理学派的意见,不但是在文学创作,就是一般人差不多也总是在发生了主观倾斜的“心理场”中从事日常活动的。所以,它的超越于现实的变形是应有之义,不足为奇。比较棘手的是魔幻式和古今式这两种,对此似有必要作进一步的阐释。
魔幻式的最大特征是神魔历史化和人格化。从表面上看,它似乎是文学的一种“复古”,像世界上许多民族的神话传说那样,分不清魔幻与现实、虚妄与实在。然而,正是这“分不清”(对作者来讲,自然是有意为之),却为作家的艺术创造提供了为别的题材内容所没有的独特的价值。因为对于审美来说, 无论神魔或人都是人学。只要作家人情地加以表现, 纳入人学的审美机制中, 这种“分不清”不但不是一种缺憾, 反而给作品陡添浪漫式的奇趣和魅力。故我们在观赏《普罗米修斯, 别扔掉火种》中普罗米修斯及其天上诸神的超凡表现, 明知其假却愿意以假当真, 并略去作者所设的“假”, 品领他的强烈的讽喻性和深刻的象征意义, 感到它的语言审美功能的矢向始终指对现实人间。魔幻式作品创造的艺术世界虽然一眼可见是幻化的世界但却往往与现实社会具有紧密同步的联系, 能激起当代观众的强烈兴趣, 道理即此。也许基于这个缘故, 《百年孤独》的作者马尔克斯对人们用“魔幻”一词评价他的作品有些不以为然, 他说与其称他为“魔幻现实主义者”, 不如称他为“社会现实主义者”。说: “我相信现实生活的魔幻。……把这样一种神奇之物称为‘魔幻现实主义’的, 这就是现实生活, 而且正是一般所说的拉丁美洲的现实生活……它是魔幻式的。”12 又说:“看上去是魔幻的东西, 实际上是拉美现实的特征。我们每前进一步, 都会遇到其他文明的读者来说似乎是神奇的事情, 而以我们来讲则是每天的现实。”13
至于魔幻式之外的古今式作品, 它主要恐怕是一个时间拼贴的问题。当作者有意让他的“古时”人在说“现时”的话时, 他实际上就是在打破已然的时间顺序, 将两个不同序态的时间叠化在一起。苏联哲学家莫斯杰巴宁柯在他的《宏观世界、巨大世界和微观世界的空间和时间》论著中, 曾根据现代物理学的时空观提出了现代哲学的变革, 其中讲到相对论的四维“空—时”流, 尤其是时间能不能向相反方向流动的问题。古今式作品在审美上对此作了富有意味的探讨。它通过语言狂欢的这种特殊姿态, 将一般科学视为荒诞的东西, 转化为一种具有特殊美感的真实形态。大禹时代讲英语等等, 当然是不可能的, 但惟其“错位”了, 它使我们观赏时透过这一时间落差的语态, 在古今同在的二元论的对立模式中, 求索其间潜存的幽邃深意。从语言学角度讲, 这也就是“ 利用语言词语中所包含的那种不固定性, 唤醒潜伏的远景并且使睡眠着的感性内容显得生动”14, 给人以“半透明”式的审美显示。
当然, 这样说并不意味现代主义历史文学语言可以随心所欲, 无所规约。作为一种“非常态”的语言, 它尽管随意荒诞, 表现了强烈的实验性、探索性和游戏狂欢的欲望, 但实际上其创作是相当严肃甚至是相当严谨的, 语言运作本身也是有原则和规律可循。这里所说的原则和规律, 从创作论层面上讲, 我以为主要有以下两点:
(一) 整体性。就是要联系作品的艺术整体, 将语言纳入一个内容与形式统一的审美框架中, 从它总体的格调、氛围、语势、语态进行把握, 而不是简单地抽出几个词加以循名责实。仍以《理水》为例, 那些充满现代性的时髦术语, 就是紧密地和所谓的“文化山”“飞车扔面包”、“大学解散”、“幼稚园没地方开”、“文化问题争论”、“拟定募捐计划”、“做时装表演”等契合在一起, 特别是和鲁迅那种特有的机趣、诙谐、讽刺、侃味和谐一体。如果离开了后者, 我们就会感到很滑稽, 不仅难以品享到它的独特的魅力, 而且极易产生“现代化”的幻灭感。用信息论原理看, 任何一个语言输出信息都是由两个变数即是信息本身(称为“信号”) 和整个模式(称为“上下文”) 通过大脑结合在一起, 才能获得解释的。“信号”潜在的意义, 只有靠读者通过对“上下文”的整体形象的把握, 诱发自己的经验联想和情感活动, 才能寻找到它的深刻独特的寓意。而“现代化”的幻灭感, 恰恰正是不顾“上下文”关系的。所以, 同样是古人说今话, 它们两者是可以分辨的, 作用于读者的心理也截然有别。
(二) 自为性。这可从作者主体意识中看出。现代主义历史文学上述之“非常态”语言的运用, 就作者自身来讲, 他是自觉的, 这是一种“有意故意”的作假, 并不是出于无知而不经意露出的破绽。无论是《普罗米修斯,扔掉火种》中让普罗米修斯及其诸神讲今话,《贵族尤利乌斯·恺撒的业绩》、《西蒙娜·马莎尔的梦》(布莱希特) 中让恺撒、马莎尔等人操今语,还是鲁迅在《采薇》、《出关》、《起死》中叫小丙君讲“文学概论”,关尹谈老作家“稿费从优”,庄子论“彻底的利己主义者”等等,作者主观心目中的人神、古今界限是非常清楚的。林非在论《故事新编》的一篇文章中对此曾有过一段很好的分析,他说:像鲁迅这样出于高度自觉的写法,“在作者主观上确实都没有将古今混淆起来。”正因为作者主观意识性程度非常强,所以他在进行古今语言杂陈描写时,不独特意挑选那些古今截然分明的语汇入书(力避似是而非、一般性的语汇入书),而且在具体描写时涉笔成趣,极尽诙谐和“油滑”。这样,就使这些插进去的今语彰明昭著地在作品中凸现出来,能“给读者造成滑稽和怪诞的感觉时,提醒他们划清作品中历史题材与现代生活情节的界限,而又在忍俊不禁的审美过程中与作者达成默契,产生联想”。这与作者由于无知、修养不足而一本正经地混淆古今,性质不同,效果也大相径庭。“一本正经的混淆古今,就划不清两者的界限,只能违背了历史主义;而诙诣和‘油滑’的杂陈古今,两者的界限始终是清楚的,自然就不存在违背历史主义的问题。”15 他的这个辨析,从一个侧面反映和揭示了现代主义历史文学语言探索的严肃性及其内在规律,值得我们引起重视。
① 雨果:《〈克伦威尔〉序》。
② 见章罂: 《从〈棠棣之花〉读到评历史剧》,《新华日报》1941 年12 月7 日。
③ 萨丕尔:《语言论》第31 页。
④ 郭沫若: 《历史·史剧·现实》,《语文》1927 年第2 卷第2 期。
⑤ 陈白尘: 《历史剧的语言问题》,《语文》1937 年第2 卷第2 期。
⑥ 引自《七十年代的捷克历史文学》,《外国文学动态》1980 年第6 期。
⑦ 余秋雨:《戏剧审美心理学》第378~379 页,四川人民出版社1985 年版。
⑧ 李渔:《闲情偶寄·贵显浅》。
⑨ 斯坦利·梭罗门:《电影的观念》第367~368 页,中国电影出版社1983 年出版。
⑩章学诚:《文史通义———古文十弊》。
11 弗吉尼亚·伍尔夫:《论小说与小说家》,上海译文出版社1986 年出版。
12 加西亚·马尔克斯: 《时代、创作和自己》,《外国文学动态》1982 年第12 期。
13 加西亚·马尔克斯: 《我的作品来源于形象》,《世界电影》1984 年第2 期。
14 沃尔夫冈:《语言的艺术作品》第389 页,上海译文出版社1984 年出版。
15 林非: 《论〈故事新编〉与中国现代文学中的历史题材小说》,《文学评论》1984 年第2 期。
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大盘历史点位
uio899
回答了这个问题 | 09-09-13
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学习历史需要如何改进?
uio899
回答了这个问题 | 09-09-13
Hello!
China's large cities, the emergence of a new hotel quietly Yetai: economic-type hotel. To provide clean rooms, delicious nutritious breakfast, convenient downtown location, brand well-known chain operations ... ... This hotel has become a very popular accommodation facilities in the streets of coastal cities prospered. However, the Government regulatory agencies on this new development of the industry is a lack of preparation, the academic community to explore the concept of budget hotels are also still in its infancy.
Research lag and industry management, absence of economic-type hotel industry has led to some confusion in the concept and operation errors. In this paper, the development of foreign economic-type hotel on the Chinese economy hotels summarized the characteristics to try to right the economy hotels made a preliminary determination of the concept, analysis of budget hotels in China's development, market demand, and raised the industry's future trends, expectations for the economy hotels to offer a few ideas researchers and managers.
A course of development of economy hotels
Economy Hotel (Budget Hotel) is relative to the traditional full-service hotel (Full Service Hotel) and there is a hotel Yetai. Hotels in the world has experienced four historical stages: germination and early stages of development; boom period of development; brands adjustment period; re-development period.
30 in the late 20th century to the late 50s is a burgeoning economy and development of the hotel early. The main features of this stage is the motel's emergence and development. The 20th century, 30's, as the United States the rise of mass consumption, as well as the development of road network, motels began to appear, in order to provide cheap trips civilians stay at home. For example, as early as 1939, Florida motel on the spontaneous formation of several co-organized the industry the quality of the courtyard (Quality Courts), and in the following year changed its name to the quality of a joint hotel courtyard (Quality Courts United), motel owners for the monomer industry services. After World War II, the U.S. economic prosperity led to mass tourism development, and led to a large number of accommodation facilities for middle and low demand; the completion of inter-city expressway network is to promote the popularity of the motel. The Holiday Motel was established in 1952 absorbing the last motel on the basis of development experiences to improve the quality of service, and the first attempt to replicate the standardized products and services, in just ten years time along the highway network in the United States, the rapid发展.
From the late 80s early 60s, the economy hotels into the boom period of development. Rapidly growing number of hotels, but also presents a wealth of product shape hierarchy, beginning to move in diverse directions. Chain management began to replace the traditional decentralized business model, single hotel to open up the expansion of means of rapid development, some developed more mature economy hotels began merger integration monomer hotel. At the same time, the economy hotels began international development, from the United States spread to Canada, Central America, South America and Europe. This expansion also stimulated the rise of local hotels, particularly budget hotels in Europe started its rapid development. The late '80s economic hotels has become a mature hotel Yetai developed countries in Europe and the United States.
From the late 80s to late 90s, the economy hotels are beginning to adjust to the brand. Over a long period of rapid development, economy hotels entered the market maturity, growth and large-scale expansion of power gradually weakened. The diversification strategy of large hotel groups and investment policies to promote hotel group more inclined to buy through capital operation and integration of existing brands within the industry, rather than from the innovative brand. Competition in the market out of a number of management is weak, poor brand of operating funds, some large and strong brand due to the capital strength and management capabilities have become increasingly powerful. Increased competition forced the company to service quality management and brand building. Brand building, quality management, market segmentation, product diversification, internal management of enterprises has received unprecedented attention.
Into the 21st century, the economic-type hotel has entered a new round of rapid development period. This is mainly reflected in the economy hotel market development in developing countries and local brand development. In China, Southeast Asia and other regions, the expansion of economic-type hotel very quickly. World-renowned hotel brands in succession into the economy, such as the Accor Group, Ibis (Ibis), Formula 1 (Formula 1), Cendant Group's Super 8 (Super 8), every day Inn (Days Inn), InterContinental Hotels Group's Holiday Inn (Holiday Inn Express), are trying aimed at the Asian market. At the same time, some Asian local economy hotel brand has also started to develop, such as China, Jinjiang and Home Inns, etc..
2 hotels definition and characteristics of
At present, the academic budget hotels have not formed a generally accepted definition. Abroad, the division of economy hotels in the main price as the standard, for example, Powers (1995) that the economy does not provide hotel is a full-service (full service), and housing prices during the period 1991 to 1993, maintained at 33 dollars below the hotel . According to the characteristics of economic-type hotel and China's actual situation, I believe that the definition of economy hotel can be summed up as: "to the general public and small and medium business travelers who serve primarily to room as the sole or core products, low prices ( usually in the 300 RMB or less), service standards, environmental comfort, hardware, superior, cost-effective modern hotel Yetai. "
Economic-type hotel, as an emerging trend of marketing and economic development and social life of the product, it is entirely different from the upper strata of society to face full-service hotel, is to meet the accommodation needs of ordinary civilians, the product of travel facilities. The basic features are as follows:
First of all, the limited nature of the product. Economic-type hotel closely the core values of the hotel - accommodation, with room for the soul of products to, among other non-essential services, thereby significantly reducing costs. In general, the economic-type hotel rooms and breakfast only (Bed & Breakfast), some limited service hotel also offers a simple dining, fitness and conference facilities.
Second, the quality of products and services. And你好!
中国的大城市中悄然兴起一种新的酒店业态:经济型酒店。提供清洁卫生的客房,味美营养的早餐,交通方便地段繁华,品牌知名连锁经营……这样的酒店已经成为一种非常流行的住宿设施在沿海大城市的大街小巷蓬勃发展起来。然而政府管理机构对这个新兴行业的发展却缺乏准备,学术界对经济型酒店的概念探讨也还刚刚起步。
研究的滞后和行业管理的缺位导致了经济型酒店行业出现一些概念的混乱和经营的误区。本文结合国外经济型酒店的发展,对中国经济型酒店的特点进行归纳,尝试对经济型酒店做了一个初步的概念厘定,分析了经济型酒店在中国发展的市场需求,并且提出了这个行业未来发展的趋势,期望能为经济型酒店的研究者和管理者提供一点思路。
一 经济型酒店的发展历程
经济型酒店(Budget Hotel)是相对于传统的全服务酒店(Full Service Hotel)而存在的一种酒店业态。经济型酒店在全球的发展经历了四个历史阶段:萌芽与发展初期;蓬勃发展时期;品牌调整时期;重新发展时期。
20世纪30年代末期到50年代末期是经济型酒店的萌芽与发展初期。这一阶段的主要特点是汽车旅馆的出现与发展。20世纪30年代,随着美国大众消费的兴起以及公路网络的发展,汽车旅馆开始出现,为平民的出游提供廉价的住宿服务。例如,早在1939年美国佛罗里达几家汽车旅馆就自发形成了行业联合组织品质庭院(Quality Courts),并于第二年改名为品质庭院联合酒店(Quality Courts United),为单体汽车旅馆业主提供行业服务。二战后,美国经济的繁荣带动了大众旅游发展,引发了对中低档住宿设施的大量需求;城际高速公路网络的建成则促进了汽车旅馆的风行。1952年成立的假日汽车旅馆在吸收了过去汽车旅馆发展经验的基础上改善了服务质量,并且第一次尝试采取标准化方式复制产品和服务,在短短的十年时间里沿着美国的公路网络迅速发展。
从60年代初到80年代末期,经济型酒店进入蓬勃发展时期。酒店数量迅速增长,而且产品形态呈现丰富的层次性,开始朝着多元化方向发展。连锁经营开始取代传统的分散经营模式,单体酒店开拓出快速发展的扩张途径,一些发展得比较成熟的经济型酒店开始并购整合单体酒店。同时,经济型酒店开始了国际化的发展,从美国传播到加拿大、中美洲、南美洲以及欧洲。这种扩张同时刺激了本土经济型酒店的兴起,尤其是欧洲的经济型酒店开始快速发展。到80年代末期经济型酒店已经成为欧美发达国家成熟的酒店业态。
从80年代末期到90年代末,经济型酒店行业开始进行品牌调整。经过长期的快速发展,经济型酒店进入了市场成熟期,高速增长和大规模扩张的动力逐渐减弱。大型酒店集团的多元化战略和投资政策促使酒店集团更加倾向于通过资本运作来购买和整合原有行业内的品牌,而不是自创新的品牌。市场竞争淘汰了一些管理力量薄弱,资金运营不畅的品牌,一些大而强的品牌则因资本实力和管理实力变得越发强大。竞争的加剧迫使企业转向服务质量管理和品牌建设。品牌建设、质量管理、市场细分、产品多元化等企业内部管理得到前所未有的重视。
进入21世纪,经济型酒店进入了新一轮快速发展时期。这主要表现在经济型酒店在发展中国家的市场开拓和本土品牌的发展。在中国、东南亚等地区,经济型酒店的扩张非常迅速。世界著名的经济型酒店品牌陆续进入,如雅高集团的宜必思(Ibis)、方程式1(Formula 1),圣达特集团的速8(Super 8)、天天客栈(Days Inn)、洲际集团的假日快捷(Holiday Inn Express)等,都纷纷瞄准了亚洲市场。同时,一些亚洲本土的经济型酒店品牌也开始发展,例如中国的锦江之星和如家快捷等。
二 经济型酒店的定义与特点
目前,学术界对经济型酒店还没有形成一个公认的定义。国外对经济型酒店的划分主要以价格为标准,例如Powers(1995)认为,经济型酒店是指不提供全面服务(full service)的,房价在1991~1993年期间维持在33美元以下的酒店。根据经济型酒店的特点和中国的实际情况,笔者认为,经济型酒店的定义可以总结为:“以大众旅行者和中小商务者为主要服务对象,以客房为唯一或核心产品,价格低廉(一般在300元人民币以下),服务标准,环境舒适,硬件上乘,性价比高的现代酒店业态。”
经济型酒店作为一种新兴业态,是经济发展和社会生活的产物,它完全区别于面对社会上流阶层的全服务酒店,是满足一般平民旅行住宿需求的产品设施。其基本特征如下:
首先,是产品的有限性。经济型酒店紧扣酒店的核心价值——住宿,以客房产品为灵魂,去除了其他非必需的服务,从而大幅度削减了成本。一般来说,经济型酒店只提供客房和早餐(Bed &Breakfast),一些有限服务酒店还提供简单的餐饮、健身和会议设施。
其次,产品和服务的优质性。与一般社会旅馆不同的是,经济型酒店非常强调客房设施的舒适性和服务的标准化,突出清洁卫生、舒适方便的特点。
再次,价格适中。相对于高档饭店动辄上千元的房价,经济型酒店的价格一般在人民币300元以下,一些青年旅舍和汽车旅馆甚至只有几十至一百元左右。
第四,经济型酒店的目标市场是一般商务人士、工薪阶层、普通自费旅游者和学生群体等。而高档酒店往往以高端商务客人、高收入阶层、公费旅客为主要目标市场。
最后,从外在表现来说,经济型酒店一般采取连锁经营的方式,通过连锁经营达到规模经济,提高品牌价值。这也是经济型酒店区别于其他星级酒店和社会旅馆的一个明显特征。
三 中国经济型酒店的发展现状
我国经济型酒店最初的发展始于1996年,上海锦江集团下属的锦江之星作为中国第一个经济型酒店品牌问世。进入21世纪,各种经济型品牌如雨后春笋破土而出,呈现以下几个特点:
首先,中国经济型酒店行业成长迅速,出现了一些影响颇广的民族自创品牌。具有全国影响力的有:锦江集团于1996年创建的锦江之星;首都旅游国际酒店集团与携程旅行服务公司与2002年共同投资组建的如家酒店连锁等。此外,还有一些地区品牌的经济型酒店,如上海地区的莫泰168和宝隆居家、华南地区的7天、北京地区的欣燕都等。这些品牌呈现蓬勃的发展趋势,在短短几年时间里得到迅速的扩张,一些地区品牌正在积极向着全国品牌的方向努力。
其次,中国经济型酒店市场需求旺盛,几个大型城市和几块区域成为热点。北京、上海、广州、成都等大型城市的经济型酒店需求非常突出,市场条件比较成熟。而长江三角洲、珠江三角洲、京津地区这三个地区较高的经济发展总体水平也决定了经济型酒店的需求水平。所以经济型酒店在中国是以点面结合的格局迅速在经济发达地区发展起来的。
再次,经济型酒店吸引了各类资本的大量涌入。由于经济型酒店的投资比较小,而投资回报率明显高于一般的酒店;同时,中国目前的投资环境比较好,资金供给充足,很多闲散资金一直在努力寻找适合的投资项目,这种结合了物业与酒店的优质项目格外吸引资本的涌入;另外,中国房地产的升值空间也导致了投资者对经济型酒店地产的升值预期,所以,来自社会各个行业的资金纷纷看好这类项目。
最后,外来品牌与民族品牌的竞争日益加剧。许多国外成熟的经济型酒店品牌看好中国的市场潜力,高调进入。他们成熟的管理经验,雄厚的资金实力和人才储备,享誉世界的品牌,发达的营销网络,严格的质量控制都具有无法比拟的优势,对本土发展起来、只有短短几年经验的中国民族品牌形成了强大的压力。中国本土的经济型酒店必须快速学习,快速成长,才能在市场竞争中获得一定的地位和优势。
四 中国经济型酒店市场需求分析
经济型酒店的发展是在大众消费刺激下发展起来的。究其原因,经济型酒店发展的市场动力来源于三个方面:
1.中国的大众旅游发展需要价廉物美的酒店住宿设施
随着经济的发展,中国已经开始逐步进入小康社会。从2000年开始,国内生产总值每年以1万亿人民币的水平增长;一些沿海经济发达城市的人均GDP超过了3000美元;中国的国内旅游总人次超过了全国总人口的60%,已经基本上达到了大众旅游的标准。中国经济发展为国内旅游奠定了一个广大的市场基础,为大众旅游时代的到来拉开了帷幕。
与大众旅游伴生的是相应旅游设施的改进和旅游行业结构的调整。改革初期,酒店业的发展集中于高星级酒店,这是与国家大力发展入境旅游相符合的。然而,随着国内消费力量的增强,国内大众旅游市场井喷增长,需要符合国内旅游者需求和经济实力的旅游配套设施。而价格适中,质量上乘,服务优质,品牌知名的中低档酒店数量很少。因此,受每年高达10亿人次以上的国内大众旅游的推动,我国的经济型酒店市场得以蓬勃发展。
2.中国日益繁荣的经济刺激了商务旅游的发展,同样产生了对经济型酒店的巨大需求
近年来,随着世界经济的发展和全球化进程的加快,国家之间和国家内部的商务往来日益频繁,商务旅游在全世界迅速发展起来。据统计,2000年全球商务旅游收入已经超过4000亿美元,并且每年以超过8%的速度递增。2003年在中国境内活动的国际、港澳台和国内商务游客人数达到1.16亿。据世界旅游组织的估算,中国的商务旅游目前年支出在103亿美元,在中国经济迅猛发展的背景下也正经历飞速的发展,据估计,在未来几年可能以20%的惊人速度增长。
以往,高星级饭店是商务客人的主要选择,但是,随着私有经济的发展,以及一些公司对差旅经费的限制,人们在进行商务活动的时候更加注重性价比的选择。一些设施设备豪华,装修考究,服务优良,但是只提供客房和会议设施,削减其他非必需设施从而能大幅度降低价格的新型酒店业态,开始受到商务旅行者的青睐。
3.随着中国入境旅游的发展,国际游客对经济型酒店的需求也逐渐上升
从国际游客的需求来看,越来越多的国际旅游者来到中国旅游,15~24岁的年轻人和不参团的自助游客是青年旅舍和经济型酒店的主要市场目标。根据国家旅游局的调查,2004年,来华旅客中15~24岁的外国游客超过了120万,并且自助游客增长迅速。随着国际著名品牌如雅高Ibis、圣达特Super 8, Days Inn等经济型酒店进入中国,以及中国本土的经济型酒店的发展,国际游客对经济型酒店的需求将越来越大。
五 中国经济型酒店存在的问题
1.市场细分不完全,产品层次不清晰
经济型酒店在中国刚刚起步,尤其是一些民族品牌的酒店,还没有明确的目标市场,或者对目标市场的细分工作不够细致和完全,导致了市场重叠或者过于宽泛,产品设计没有层次,缺乏针对不同细分市场需求的产品和服务。根据国外的发展经验,经济型酒店有三种类型档次:有限服务酒店(Limited Service Hotel),经济酒店(Economy Hotel/Budget Hotel)和廉价酒店(Super Budget Hotel)。有限服务酒店在经济型酒店中属于高档次,经济酒店中档,廉价酒店则属于最低档次。这三种层次的酒店价格相差很大,其硬件设施的差距也非常大,有限服务酒店的客房硬件设施不亚于四五星级宾馆,而一些廉价酒店则在削减成本的思想指导下尽量简化设备,客房设施比较简陋。但是在中国,目前市场上还没有出现非常清晰的产品层次的划分。
2.管理经验缺乏,人力资源不足
在几年的发展过程中,国内的经济型酒店积累了一定的管理经验,但是与国外一些成熟品牌几十年的管理经验相比,不足之处仍然很明显。在成本控制、服务质量、培训机制、物流配送、企业文化等方面,需要继续改进。同时,中国以往的酒店人才是按照高星级酒店的服务规范和特性培养出来的,无法适应经济型酒店一人多岗,一职全能的技能要求。对于高层管理者来说,很少有既精通连锁经营又掌握酒店管理的人才。经济型酒店各个层次的人才都面临供应不足的问题因此,经济型酒店各个层次的人才都面临供应不足的问题。3.市场营销手段缺乏,销售预定网络不全
与国外品牌相比,中国国内的经济型酒店品牌明显缺乏市场营销的意识和手段。尤其是一些区域性的品牌,知名度非常低,品牌形象构建也不够成功。尤其重要的一点是,除了锦江之星、如家快捷、新宇之星等少数几家酒店连锁建设了独立销售预定网络和电话中心以外,其他很多酒店都主要依靠专业的订房中心和旅行社来销售客房。即使是有预定网络的酒店,其预定技术和效率也不是很高,设计不够完善。
4.国外经济型酒店的本土化障碍
许多国外成熟品牌受中国市场的吸引而进入,但是其本土化改造和适应需要一定的时间。中国的市场和顾客与国外的存在很大差别,行业形态和配套的产业链差异也值得注意。在与国内企业合作的过程中,一些酒店品牌采取了过急的进入政策,导致品牌在中国的异化和质量的失控。例如速8采取了特许加盟的品牌输出方式快速切入中国市场,在北京开出的王府井和团结湖两家店的价格相差两倍多,其中王府井分店的价格已经达到了高档饭店的水平。这种价格的大落差会导致品牌的不持续性,从而破坏该品牌在消费者心中的预期和形象。另外,本土化障碍还表现在管理理念和方式方面。基于国外文化背景的管理理念来到中国必然会面临一定的障碍,所以改善势在必行。
5.非理性资本的涌入给产业带来冲击
经济型酒店的高投资回报率吸引了大量的资本,但是一些非理性资本的涌入导致了很多问题。一些原星级酒店被资本收购后改头换面冠以经济型酒店之名;一些经济型酒店的管理、经营等各个方面都存在很大的问题;一些资本的真实关注点是地产,只想借经济型酒店之壳进入……这些现象都会搅乱这个产业原本就不是很稳定的秩序,导致一般民众对经济型酒店概念理解的混乱,并且为日后的价格竞争埋下隐患。
六 中国经济型酒未来发展趋势预测
随着国内经济和旅游业的飞速发展,大众对经济型酒店的需求越来越强烈。能够被大众消费层所接受的经济型酒店在中国有着广阔的市场前景。经济型酒店在中国未来将呈现以下三个主要发展趋势:
1.连锁经营形式将成为经济型酒店发展的主要模式
连锁经营是世界酒店发展的主要趋势。英国一家投资机构对全世界酒店业进行调查和统计发现,到20世纪末,世界上酒店客房总数的1/6被34家酒店集团连锁经营,而欧美等发达国家的饭店总数中超过半数的都是连锁经营的。
经济型酒店在中国是一个新兴的业态,大多数投资者没有相应的经验,需要较长的学习积累过程。因此,经济型酒店的发展通常是从一些单体酒店开始的,在积累了一定的管理经验和品牌资产以后,逐渐推广连锁店。
经济型酒店采取连锁经营形式是两组矛盾发展的必然结果:一是酒店销售的空间局限性与消费者的分散性;二是酒店对规模效益的追求与个体酒店力量薄弱之间的矛盾。
首先,酒店销售的空间局限性与消费者的分散性之间的矛盾导致了酒店必须追求空间上最大散布的可能。
酒店经营具有强烈的空间性,使得单个酒店对客源的吸引力受到空间距离的强烈影响。而游客的分散性主要体现在客人在城市内活动的区域呈现多中心、广范围的特性。随着城市化进程的加快,都市型产业结构的逐步形成,城市集聚了越来越多的旅游、商务、会务功能,各个城市都经历了迅速扩张,传统的小面积的市中心已经不是城市中唯一的繁华地区和客人活动的核心区域,越来越多的新区、开发区、新兴购物中心、金融中心、景点度假地区等如雨后春笋般涌现出来,各区域聚集相应的人群客流,并且,这些区域间的商务、交通等方面的交流促进了人员的流动,加剧了人员在城市中活动的分散性。所以,酒店的空间局限性与客人的空间分散性构成了一个巨大的矛盾。通过连锁经营就可以扩大该品牌的酒店在某个城市的空间分布,从而有效地解决其空间局限性。
其次,酒店对规模效益的追求与个体酒店力量薄弱之间的矛盾使得酒店应该尽可能地扩大经营规模。
追求利润最大化是企业的终极目标,为此,企业会采取种种措施来降低成本,提高效率。扩大生产规模是降低成本的一种有效途径。根据生产成本理论,在一定时期内,企业边际产量的提高会带来边际成本的下降,但是这种效应是有限的,超过了一定的规模会导致企业效率的下降,其他长期成本费用的上升,届时的边际成本反而会随着产量的提高而上升。因此,用扩大企业规模来提高效率,追求利润最大化是有一定限制的。企业规模扩张是有边界的,在达到了企业规模饱和点以后就无法继续使用这个手段来降低企业成本。企业为了在激烈的市场竞争中获胜,必须寻求其他的方法来降低成本,提高利润。连锁可以极大地提高连锁集团内各个酒店的效益,并且可以提升整个连锁集团的整体形象。
2.经营差异化和品牌建设是经济型酒店竞争发展的生存之道
目前中国经济型酒店的市场划分还处于比较初级的阶段,很多经济型酒店定位比较模糊,有些只是笼统的把自费出游和中小商务客人作为目标市场,很少有进一步的划分。然而,在经济型酒店非常发达的美国,不同的经济型酒店所针对的目标市场是非常明确和独特的。有专门为自驾车客人准备的汽车旅馆,有专门为老年游客提供的酒店,有专门为青年背包旅游者提供的住宿设施,有专门接待女性旅游者的酒店,还有针对家庭出游的公寓式经济酒店。
国内经济型酒店在达到一定数量以后,市场竞争必然会加剧,笼统的市场定位和无差异的产品已经不能有效地吸引顾客,尤其是产品的同质化将是经济型酒店参与市场竞争的致命缺陷。因此,市场细分和产品差异化是酒店经营者必须面对的问题。另外,现代社会中,品牌已经成为了一种文化载体,酒店行业作为一种无形服务和有形产品紧密结合的行业,品牌对其意义尤为重要。每个经济型酒店品牌必须在未来的几年时间内完成品牌形象的定位和内涵的定义,目标市场的细分和顾客忠诚度的树立,产品设计的改进和服务的完善,只有这样才能在越来越激烈的市场竞争中获得稳定的客源。
为此,按照顾客群体的年龄、性别、出行目的、职业、收入等指标,可以将目前的经济型酒店客源市场进一步细分为很多目标市场,如老年游客市场,青年市场,求医者市场,学生市场,商务游客市场,白领度假市场等等,根据这些细化的目标市场的消费特征设计不同的经济型酒店产品和服务,填补市场的空白,形成稳定的目标消费群体。
3.管理专业化和技术进步推动经济型酒店的发展
经济型酒店的主要特点是“物美价廉”,这就要求经营者必须寻求服务质量和成本控制的最佳结合点。许多新的技术,如电子预定系统、财务控制系统,以及一些先进的管理制度,如前台管理、客户管理等,能有效提高服务效率,降低管理成本,经济型酒店对这样的技术和制度具有很大的需求。但是目前这些管理系统都是针对高星级饭店的,经济型酒店的管理体系仍然处于一个摸索阶段。面对经济型酒店日益发展的局面和对管理系统的强烈需求,一些成熟的酒店软件和管理体系会根据经济型酒店的特点而做出相应的改进和升级,这将促进经济型酒店管理系统的发展和完善。
具体来说,经济型酒店管理系统的完善主要表现在几个方面:
首先是预定系统。随着竞争的激烈化,建设一个非常通畅的预定分销系统是非常重要的举措。“如家”和“锦江之星”已经建立了独立的预定系统,但是很多刚刚起步,规模不大的经济型酒店在这个方面仍然是一片空白,有很多酒店的销售和预定模仿的是一般的星级酒店,通过旅行社、订房中心、旅游预定网站,如携程、E龙等来销售客房。这些销售渠道攫取了经济型酒店的相当一部分利润,不利于经营成本的控制。而且,对销售渠道的控制不力会给以后的经营造成诸多不稳定的隐患。因此,建立一个自身的独立的预定系统既能降低销售成本,又能稳定分销渠道是十分必要的。
其次是人事管理系统。经济型酒店的管理人才目前在这个行业是非常稀缺的,传统的酒店管理机构培养的人才都是适应星级饭店的运营系统,很少能适应经济型酒店“一人多岗”、“一职多能”的特点。因此,人才短缺是限制经济型酒店发展的最大障碍。一些发展比较成熟的经济型酒店,如“锦江之星”已经建立了自身的人事培训系统,这种系统必然会在其他经济型酒店中得到推广和改进,也是这些经济型酒店建立人才培育的重要途径。因此,人才培训系统是未来经济型酒店必须关注的一个重要方面。另外,以往的人事管理系统都是针对星级饭店的特点发展而来的,在经济型酒店的管理框架下,如何做好人事激励和考核管理是摆在经营者面前的一个新问题。
再次是经营成本控制。经济型酒店低廉的价格完全取决于经营者对成本控制的力度和角度。一些经济型酒店的经营者还没有完全摆脱星级饭店的经营思路,成本居高不下;又有一些经营者对成本控制太严格,严重影响了酒店产品的舒适度。这两种极端都是应该避免的。因此,对成本控制的探索和完善将是未来经济型酒店管理的主题。许多国外知名的经济型酒店品牌的管理经验将在中国得到借鉴和推广。
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历史
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历史3历史题材文学创作的历史真实
uio899
回答了这个问题 | 09-09-13
"" History 3 "- historical themes of the historical truth of literary creation
Historical themes in the Creation of "historical truth" belongs to what? Belong to history or belong to literature? This is a historical theme creation a major problem. Because of this problem often have a different understanding of the historical results of a very different view of the creation of themes. Historians say the creation of historical themes are history, as you make it a historical theme for creative resources, then the respect for history, but also the history of the original appearance is a minimum requirement. Literary critic says, historical themes are the creation of literature, literary works can be fictional, historical themes as long as broadly in line with the historical framework of the creative and time-off limits, they have reached a historically real. Because of differences in views historian for the historical themes of literature criticism, almost all critical historical themes creative work does not meet the historical facts wrong, while the literary critic in the history of the real problems are relatively easy to put some, more to criticize the works of art of moving the issue of whether the power is sufficient. So I think to explore historical themes in the history of creative real problems for our understanding of the historical themes of the work is very important.
History 1 and History 2
The last century, the aesthetics of great debate 50 years, the late Distinguished Professor Mr. Zhu Guangqian raised a very interesting "things A - material B" proposition. For Mr. Zhu Guangqian understanding of this proposition is directly related to our creation of historical themes "historical one" and "History 2" understanding. Mr. Zhu Guangqian In dealing with Mr. Cai Yi's criticism, said: "Things are A natural objects, and material B is the natural objects with the objective conditions of people's subjective effects of the conditions created, so that natural objects have been impure, but rather a mixture of people subjective component of the material, in other words, it is already a matter of society. aesthetic object is not natural objects but as objects of the image of the objects of society. "[1] how we have no doubt that Mr Chu is a materialistic point of view is dialectical .
If we take the view Mr. Zhu used the above history, it is clear that the true history of the original completely original, completely non-subjective and the objective existence, that is "material A" that is, I say "historical one" . "History 1" - the original objective of the real historical existence, because it can not be entrained subjective element, is the true history of the site, which is almost is not fully recovered. Especially the future generations to write the history of our predecessors, to write the history of this truly original appearance of the same, out to restore the historical site is simply impossible. For example, the consensus is that we respected historian Sima Qian, a Han Dynasty era, he lived in BC 145 to BC 90 years. His "Historical Records" first "five emperors of the discipline," wrote the Yellow Emperor, Emperor Zhuan Xu, Di Ku, Yao Di, Shun, written in China there is no written records of the primitive history of the legend of the era, with Sima Qian's life millennium era may be about as long as he is nothing but the "Book of History" in its brief perfunctory chapters for the record, how can he write the original five emperors of the original appearance of the true history of it? And then the "Historical Records" Part IV, "Zhou Ji," for although there were written records, but it is about 1066 BC? - Before 771 years, from the era of his life is also about as early as 900 years to 500 years of history, he fails to put that period of history of this truly original narrative out? This is totally impossible. We say the least, with regard to his life during the Han Dynasty, he wrote the Han Emperor Wu, write Li Guang, write Weiqing so on, but he was not always moving in because he had said a few words on behalf of Li Ling was Han Wudi diminish them, by Gong Xing, almost as a basket case, in the WQ, Huo Qubing master military power, conquered the fierce slave period, in his own home to concentrate on preparation of "Historical Records", the message blocking, like the Emperor Wu and the Weiqing dialogue, how could he know? He was incriminating in the body, we avoid the fear behind him, who will talk on the court to tell him? So, in his "Historical Records" written as concrete, is entirely speculation Sima Qian's own words, is "the objective conditions of natural objects with the conditions of people's subjective effects of produce", "Historical Records" is the unity of subjective and objective product, not history itself, just the history of the "knowledge formality". We all admire written by Sima Qian, "Hong Menyan" story, the story can be described as one climax after another really exciting. Both characters play, exit, or character expression, movement, dialogue, and even the orientation of seats, are carefully orchestrated. I do not know how the story has been adapted into a dramatic dramatist on the stage. In this type of description, in order to highlight the dramatic literature in order to obtain realistic results, in order to show conflicts, in order to characterize of character, if not based on historical facts to make the necessary fiction, is simply impossible to write this. "Historical Records" Although the "Record", claiming it was agreed that a serious historian Sima Qian's attitude, but his pen, those life-like story, can not be completely true. The pursuit of vivid artistic effect, the pursuit of work appeal, he spent a lot of legends of materials, the details must be fictional. Sima Qian's Readme "Historical Records" The purpose is: "let the world lose nothing new recruit, to act a little test. Completes the Zhong Shi, JI Xing bad its success or failure of the mind", "Yi Yu Heaven in order to study the occasion pass changes from past to present , into one of the words. "It's great master of history many famous two thousand years to great popularity, which shows a historians must have his evaluation of the historical ideal, has his subjective. His "Historical Records" is not a complete history of this truly original records, is he provided historical "forms of knowledge."
So we said, that has not fully aware of the history of this truly original appearance of a "historical one," while historians recorded in history books, then inside the historical facts, is not entirely historical fact, has joined the historian's subjectivity filtering, he praised Yang He believes that good, and disparage him that bad, advocate what he would like to advocate is, omission he wanted to miss, even where there are at least there are details and a fictional plot and so on, this is the "History 2." Sima Qian's given us is the "historical 2", not "historical one." If we say that "history 1" is the original historical truth of the original, then "History 2" is the result of subjective evaluation of the historian had the history of forms of knowledge.
Literary historical themes is where to start it? Have"“历史3”――历史题材文学创作的历史真实
历史题材创作中的“历史真实”属于什么?是属于历史还是属于文学?这是历史题材创作中一个重大问题。由于对这个问题经常有不同的理解,结果对一部历史题材的创作的看法迥异。历史学家说,历史题材的创作属于历史,既然你要以历史题材为创作的资源,那么尊重历史,还历史的本来面貌,就是起码的要求。文学批评家则说,历史题材的创作属于文学,文学创作是可以虚构的,历史题材的创作只要大体符合历史框架和时间断限,就达到了历史真实了。由于观点的分歧,历史学家对于历史题材文学创作的批评,几乎都是挑剔历史题材创作不符合历史事实的毛病,而文学批评家则在历史真实问题上相对则放得宽松一些,更多地去批评作品的艺术力量是否足以动人的问题。所以我认为探讨历史题材创作中的历史真实问题,对于我们如何理解历史题材的作品是很重要的。
历史1和历史2
上个世纪50年代的美学大讨论中,已故著名教授朱光潜先生提出了一个很有意思的“物甲-物乙”的命题。对于朱光潜先生的这个命题的了解直接关系到我们对历史题材创作中“历史1”和“历史2”的理解。朱光潜先生在反驳蔡仪先生的批评时说:“物甲是自然物,物乙是自然物的客观条件加上人的主观条件的影响而产生的,所以已经不纯是自然物,而是夹杂着人的主观成份的物,换句话说,已经是社会的物了。美感的对象不是自然物而是作为物的形象的社会的物。”[1]如何我们把朱先生观点无疑是唯物的又是辩证的。
如果我们把朱先生的观点运用于对历史上面,那么很显然,原本的完全真实的历史原貌,完全不带主观成分的客观存在,就是“物甲”,也就是我这里说的“历史1”。“历史1”――原本的客观存在的真实的历史存在,由于它不能夹带主观成分,是历史现场的真实,因而几乎是不可完全复原的。特别是后人去写前人的历史,要写到与本真的历史原貌一模一样,把历史现场还原出来,根本是不可能的。例如,大家都一致推崇的历史学家司马迁,是汉武帝时代人,他生活于公元前145年到公元前90年。他的《史记》第一篇《五帝本纪》,写黄帝、颛顼帝、喾帝、尧帝、舜帝,所写的是中国尚无文字记载的原始公社的传说时代的历史,具司马迁生活的时代也许有二千年左右之久,他不过是把《尚书》中及其简略的记载敷衍成篇,他怎么能写出五帝的原本的真实的历史原貌呢?再以《史记》第四篇《周本纪》来说,当时虽然有文字记载了,但那是大约是公元前1066?-前771年,距离他生活的年代也大约早900年到500年的历史,他怎能把那个时期的本真历史原貌叙述出来呢?这是完全不可能的。我们退一步说,就以他所生活的汉武帝时期来说,他写汉武帝,写李广,写卫青等,但他并非始终在朝,他因为替李陵说了几句话,被汉武帝贬责,受到了宫刑,几乎成为一个废人,在卫青、霍去病掌握兵权,征讨凶奴时期,他在自己的家乡专心编撰《史记》,消息闭塞,像汉武帝和卫青的对话,他怎么会知道呢?他当时获罪在身,大家避他唯恐不及,谁会把朝廷上的谈话告诉他呢?所以他在《史记》中写得那样具体,完全是司马迁自己的推测之辞,是“自然物的客观条件加上人的主观条件的影响而产生”,《史记》是主客观相统一的产物,不是历史本身,仅仅是历史的“知识形式”而已。大家都欣赏司马迁所写的“鸿门宴”故事,这个故事可谓高潮迭起,真是扣人心弦。无论是人物的出场、退场,还是人物的神情、动作、对话,乃至坐位的朝向,都十分讲究。这段故事不知被多少戏剧家改写成戏剧作品在舞台上演出。在这一类描写中,为了突出戏剧性,为了取得逼真的文学效果,为了展现矛盾冲突,为了刻划人物性格,如果不根据史实做必要的虚构,根本是不可能写成这样的。《史记》虽然以“实录”著称,大家一致认为司马迁具有严肃的史学态度,但他的笔下那些栩栩如生的故事,不可能完全是真实的。为了追求生动逼真的艺术效果,追求作品的感染力,他动用了很多传说性的材料,也必然在细节方面进行虚构。司马迁自述《史记》的宗旨是:“网罗天下放失旧闻,略考其行事。总其终始,稽其成败兴坏之记”,“亦欲以究天人之际,通古今之变,成一家之言。”这一代宗师的治史名言,二千年来脍炙人口,这说明一个史学大家必然有他的评价历史的理想的,有他的主观成分。他的《史记》不是完整的本真的历史原貌的记载,是他提供的历史“知识形式”。
所以我们说,那已经无法完全知道的本真的历史原貌是“历史1”,而历史学家记载的史书,那里面的历史事实,不完全是历史事实,已经加入了历史学家的主观成分的过滤,他褒杨他认为好的,贬抑他认为坏的,鼓吹他想鼓吹的,遗漏他想遗漏的,甚至其中也有起码也有细节和情节的虚构等等,这就是“历史2”。司马迁给我们提供的是“历史2”,不是“历史1”。如果说,“历史1”是原本的历史真实的原貌的话,那么“历史2”是经过历史学家主观评价过的历史知识形式。
历史题材的文学创作是从哪里开始的呢?有些历史学家要求从“历史1”开始,这是对历史题材创作的一种苛求,其实是做不到的。历史题材创作一般只能从史书开始,也就是从“历史2”开始。
从历史2到历史3
历史题材文学创作从“历史2”――史书开始,但不是重复史书。史书作为“历史2”是属于历史学,不属于文学。真正的历史题材的文学创作实际上是从“历史2”――史书开始,加工成文学作品。如前所述“历史2”已经有了加工,文学家创作历史题材的作品是在加工上面的再次加工。这后面的作家的加工属于文学加工,所产生的历史已经不再是“历史2”,而是“历史3”了。
那么,“历史3”与“历史2”有什么不同呢?历史题材的文学创作是从哪里开始?从哪里结束的呢?
毫无疑问,历史题材的文学创作只能从历史2开始,即从史书所提供的事实开始。因为作为历史2的史书是创作家首先要熟读的,因为不论史书如何夹带着主观成分,它总是提供了大致的历史线索、历史框架和时空断限。如何一个创作家连这些都一无所知,创作也就不可能。但是如何只是停留史书记载的具体描写上面,也还是不行的。对于历史题材的文学创作来说,最重要的一环是“艺术加工”。
“艺术加工”涉及的范围很宽,几乎就是再谈整个文学创作的规律,这篇小文里无法展开来讲。只能就其中最重要的一点来谈点看法。历史事件和历史人物都不是随意的,它的形成和产生都有其必然性。因此,在把握历史事件和历史人物中,如何尽可能做到“合理合情”就变得十分重要。所谓“合理”,就是说历史事件和历史人物的发展有它的内在的必然的逻辑性,他的形成和产生都受历史背景和条件的影响,创作家最重要的艺术加工就是要摸透历史事件和历史人物的这种内在的必然的逻辑运动规律,一旦摸透了,就不能随意地打断这种内在的必然的运动逻辑,而要始终紧跟这种逻辑。所谓“合情”,就是指历史人物的情感活动也是有内在的运动的轨迹的,他或她欢笑还是痛苦,是喜还是悲,是愤怒还是兴悦,是希望还是失望,等等,都不是随意的,也是有它自身的规定的。创作家对于历史事件和历史人物的这种运动轨迹,只能遵从,而不能随意违背。
列夫·托尔斯泰也是一个著名的历史文学家,他曾说:“不要按照自己意志随便打断和歪曲小说的情节,自己反要跟在它后头,不管它把您引向何方。”[2]列夫·托尔斯泰所说,无疑是十分正确的。中国古代文论里面,也有“事体情理”的说法,即所描写要符合对象的运动轨迹,不可胡来。曹雪芹是大家都佩服的小说家,他说:“我想历来野史皆蹈一辙,莫如我不借此套者反倒新奇别致,不过只取事体情理罢了……至若离合悲欢与兴衰际遇,则又追踪蹑迹,不敢稍加穿凿,徒为哄人之目而反失其真传者。”[3]这里所说的“事体情理”,所说的“追踪蹑迹”,就是讲要把握住描写对象的活动的轨迹、性格的逻辑和命运的必然。要自然,要天然,不要为了搞笑,为了增加噱头,而离开、歪曲历史事件和历史人物的内在的必然的运动逻辑。当然,编写历史小说、历史剧,为了增加读点和看点,增加艺术情趣,增加艺术效果,有时插科打诨是不可免的,但正如明代戏剧理论家李渔所说:“科诨虽不可少,然非有意为之。如必欲某折之中,插入某科诨一段,或预设某科诨一段,插入某折之中则是觅妓追欢,寻人卖笑,其为笑也不真,其为乐也甚苦矣。妙在水到渠成,天机自露,‘我本无心说笑,谁知笑话逼人来’,斯为科诨之妙境耳。”[4]
那么如何才能达到历史事件和历史人物的内在的必然的运动的逻辑呢?这里就要关注中古代文论提出的另外一个命题,即“设身处地”。创作家一定要调查研究历史事件和历史人物的历史文化的背景的条件下,通过“设身处地”的反复体验,做到与自己所写的历史人物情感同步的状态,与小说或剧本中的人物同甘苦共欢乐,喜怒哀乐也达到相与共。这个时候,不是创作家指挥自己笔下的人物,把自己笔下的人物当傀儡,而是跟着人物的性格走,跟着人物的心理活动走,宁可压抑自己的欲望,也要满足人物的要求。应该知道自己笔下人物的复杂性,也许他会做出出人意表的事情来。《三国演义》第二十六回写曹操抓获关云长,关云长不肯投降,本该杀掉,已取心头之患,偏偏曹操就不杀关云长,者是何道理?这就需要作者有理解曹操的心。毛宗岗评道:“曹操一生奸诈,如鬼如蜮,忽然遇着堂堂正正,凛凛烈烈,皎若青天,明若白日之一人,亦自有珠玉在前,觉吾形秽之愧,遂不觉爱之敬之,不忍杀之。此非曹操之仁,有以容纳关公,乃关公之义,有似折服曹操耳。虽然,吾奇关公,亦奇曹操。以豪杰折服豪杰不奇,以豪杰折服奸雄则奇,以奸雄敬爱豪杰则奇。夫豪杰而至折服奸雄,则是豪杰中又有数之豪杰;奸雄而能敬爱豪杰,则是奸雄中有数之好奸雄。”[5]毛宗岗这段评语,揭示了罗贯中对于自己笔下人物的心理活动的细微曲折的之处有及其深刻的了解,若不是这样来处理人物之间的关系,那么《三国演义》的深微之处,也就散失殆尽了。
作为历史2的史书所记载的材料经过如上的艺术加工,就变成了区别于史书上的材料,这就是历史3了。这历史3才是属于历史文学作品的历史真实,历史题材文学创作所要追求的艺术形象。
从这里我们可以看到,历史学家对于历史小说或历史剧的种种“不符合历史真实”、“不尊重历史真实”、“不符合历史原貌”等一类批评,常常只是对于历史2的迷恋,对于史书的迷恋,并非要小说家或剧作家真的尊重历史1――历史原貌,因为历史本真原貌基本上是不可追寻的。
历史1、历史2和历史3的关系
但是,当我们把历史1(历史原貌)与历史2(史书)区别开来,当我们要求艺术加工让历史2前进到历史3(历史小说或历史剧中的历史真实)的时候,仍不能抹煞历史1、历史2和历史3之间的关系。
对于历史1对于历史小说家或剧作家来说,往往是不可追寻的。但我们又必须认识到,历史小说和历史剧的真正的生活源泉,正是历史1。唯有历史1是才是活水源头。因此真正严肃的历史小说家或剧作家,为了历史真实,总是要通过查阅正史以外的其他历史资料,亦补正史之不足。同时也可以通过对曾经发生过某个历史事件的地点环境的勘探,考古的实物发现,都可以从中看到一些蛛丝马迹,以增加创作历史真实性。如历史事件和历史人物生活的自然环境、地势、地貌,生产力发展的具体状况,尽管今天已经有很大的改变,但其中一定还有不变的成分可供创作时参考。特别是某地的民风民情民俗,从衣食住行到住家细节,都有参考价值,决不可忽略过去。目前我们看到的一些历史小说、历史剧,从地理环境到语言到生活细节,都现代化了,这就不能不影响作品的历史真实。如电视连续剧《汉武大帝》其中的语言过分现代化了,有一些后人才说出的名言,少数民族才有的谚语,今天人刚刚才说了几年的话(如“底线”之类),都出现在剧中,不能不让人感到十分失望。另外据有的历史学家说,《汉武大帝》中关于“精钢”的情节,也完全是失真的。西汉时代,汉朝人的炼铁和炼钢技术都是周围国家无法比拟的。不是匈奴人掌握“精钢”技术封锁汉朝,而是汉朝的炼铁、炼钢技术更高,不得不对匈奴人封锁。造成此种错误的原因之一,就是作者完全忽略了历史1。我反复说过,历史1作为历史的本真原貌是不可整地追寻的,但其中可能还有若干历史的碎片,也许还残留民间,或残留在考古的发现中,艰苦的实地考察和勘探,对考古文物的重视,仍然是必要的,对于文学这种十分注重细节的艺术种类说,如何真实地再现某个历史时期的生活状貌,也是十分重要的。因此,我们说历史1的考察对于历史3的创造,仍然是创作的源泉与基础之一,丝毫也不能忽视。
在从历史2到历史3的过程中,即根据史书所提供的资料进行文学创作的过程中。对于史书的记载,不能不信,又不能全信。如我在前面已经反复说过,史书不完全是客观的,里面夹带了主观成分。因此历史小说家和历史剧作家面对史书必须进行去伪存真、去粗取精的辨析的工作。就历史的框架和时间断限来说,可能史书是很有用的,但对历史事件和人物的评价观点,就有可能存在许多历史局限。中国古代的历史典籍,总是歌颂帝王将相,而批判农民起义及其英雄,把农民起义称为“造反”,把农民起义的代表人物称为“贼”,这完全是历史的颠倒,应该颠倒过来。历史典籍无疑都是历史小说家、历史剧作家十分重视的,但的确存在一个如何阅读的问题,用什么观点去阅读的问题。
另外既然历史3是历史题材文学创作的历史真实,它属于文学范畴,那么如何超越历史典籍,让所描写的内容具有想象性、诗意性,就是很自然的。他们无疑要重视历史典籍,但又不能照搬历史典籍。历史题材的文学创作中的艺术想象,是作品是否成功的一个重要方面。如果说,历史典籍是干枯的记载的话,那么文学家笔下的历史就必须赋予这干枯的记载以鲜活的血和肉,赋予以深邃的灵魂,把某种意义上的死文字变成正在演变着的活的故事。从历史2到历史3的想象就就成为真正的考验。以《三国演义》为例,其中的诸葛亮设计的“空城计”,几乎家喻户晓,无人不知。但这情节完全是“想象”、“虚构”。《三国演义》长篇小说,以及后来改编的电视连续剧,就不是完全照搬历史,如果照搬历史事实,创作就不会成功,《三国演义》(包括小说和电视连续剧)之所以能够获得成功,就在于它有很充分的想象。在这里,小说家和编导何等生动地写出了诸葛亮超人的智慧、沉着、勇气和才能,作者简直对他倾注了无限的赞美之情,但历史的事实如何呢?你查一下《三国志》那个历史书就知道,历史上一些没有的事情,被说得真实可信,甚至绘声绘色。譬如,诸葛亮一生只是在最后一次北伐时,才与司马懿在渭水对峙。诸葛屯兵陕西汉中阳平时,司马懿还是湖北担任荆州都督,根本没有机会与诸葛亮对阵。“空城计”情节完全是作家想象的产物。
从以上所述,我们可以说,历史1作为历史的原貌是历史题材创作的源泉,虽然它往往不可寻觅,但历史小说家和历史剧作家还是要尽力去寻觅,即或只能获得一些碎片,也是有意义的。历史典籍作为历史2是创作的基本资料,当然是重要的,需要十分熟悉,也需要加以辨析,但不能原样照搬。历史题材的文学创作必须有辽阔的诗意想象空间。只有在深度的艺术加工的过程后,我们才会获得作为历史3的历史文学创作的历史真实。
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全国第二届青年书法篆刻作品展评奖情况是怎样的?
uio899
回答了这个问题 | 09-08-27
This year's have passed, and next year's yet to be announced Zhenggao.
In accordance with usual practice, at the earliest after the announcement in March of next year Zhenggao Notices.
I hope you pay attention to the time painting and calligraphy exhibition game information sites, if the set of Chinese calligraphy, Chinese art is reported that China Shu Xie Zheng Gao of all exhibition game they are the first published: Because this is the Shuxie publications.
Now the Ninth Calligraphy and Seal Cutting Exhibition Fair issued notices to you for the reference (Zhenggao the main content can be said that every year so, no great innovation) to facilitate preparation.
I wish you success!
====================
The Ninth National Calligraphy and Seal Cutting Exhibition Zheng Gao Notices
In order to carry forward the fine traditional culture, and building a harmonious culture, and a comprehensive display of contemporary Chinese calligraphy, seal carving of artistic achievements and promote further prosperity of contemporary art of calligraphy, seal carving, after bidding and negotiation, the Chinese Calligraphers Association held in Guangdong, to determine the Ninth National Calligraphy and Seal Cutting Exhibition.
The current State Fair Deng Xiaoping Theory and the "Three Represents", fully implement the scientific concept of development, adhere to the party's "two for the" direction and "double hundred" policy, grasp the art of correct orientation; follow and uphold the tradition, to encourage innovation , a variety of styles of writing laws; and adhere to fair, open and fair manner, the implementation of the sun review; a comprehensive test of the book altar results, achievements comprehensive survey by the introduction of fine introduction of talents, enhance the human spirit; promote the cause of all-round prosperity of Chinese calligraphy, in order to to contribute to building a socialist harmonious society.
Will also be held during the exhibition of Chinese calligraphy large auditorium, the national forum and exhibition of Chinese calligraphy art industry, and so on. Zheng Gao related matters now announced as follows:
A holding unit
Organizers: China Calligraphers Association
The co-sponsors: Guangdong Provincial Party Committee Propaganda Department
Sponsor: Federation of Literary and Art Circles, Guangdong Province, Guangdong Province, Calligraphers Association
Second, organizations
1, Organizing Committee
Ninth National Calligraphy and Seal Cutting Exhibition Organizing Committee and the organizer from China Shuxie composed of the leaders.
2, the Vetting Committee
Chinese Calligraphers Association pursuant to the "China Calligraphers Association Accreditation Committee for the formation Interim Measures", the composition of the jury is responsible for the judging process.
3, calligraphy works of submission and review
1, Received the scope of
More than 18 years of age Chinese citizens and overseas Chinese, calligraphy lovers can freely contribute.
2, calligraphic works Received request
(1) Content: Health up ancient and modern poetry, Alliance, Fu, maxims, etc. can be, to promote self-made poetry.
(2) Specifications: Body not limited to books and calligraphy works of size if they had no more than bachi to vertical is appropriate. Album into the show does not exceed five percent of the total. Cursive, seal character, and seal shall be attached the text interpretation.
(3) request: Do not mount all the entries. Please use a pencil on the back of the lower right corner neatly annotated in his works by their real names, age, gender, unit, identity card number, contact telephone number, mailing address and Zip code in detail. In order to facilitate accurate registration, promptly contact the author, please fill in the other print "Received registration form of the Ninth National Art Exhibition", attached to the works of the bottom right corner.
(4) Each piece shall be from the bank or post office charges 30 yuan exchange Shen Ping (not to the envelope Gaji, sea exchange 30 U.S. dollars), Shen Ping Fei's works have not received no assessment.
(5) Received an unlimited number of entries to prohibit repeat Received a pseudonym.
(6) Received a copy of ID card when you must be accompanied. China Shuxie members attached a copy of the membership card. China Shuxie member organizations work groups manuscript free initial evaluation.
(7) Fan Xu rejection, and Received the same time, remit RMB 50 withdrawal fees charged by remittance along with a copy of back royalties.
3, the exhibition scale
1000 exhibits, of which about 900 entries into the show, invited about 100 works.
4 Prizes
A total of 35 national awards, including first prize in five, 10 second prize, third prize 20, and a separate award nominations 35. (The above number of the set ceiling, the assessment of quality can be determined in accordance with a specific quota of entries).
5, calligraphic works review
(1) by the Chinese Calligraphers Association, composed of the jury in this exhibition to develop accreditation details accreditation processes, and judges a code of practice on the judges a clear violation of the approach.
(2) The assessment conducted in two phases, the first phase, through initial evaluation, re-assessment and final assessment, the assessment from the manuscripts out of exhibition works by 900. Then the winning entries selected by a vote 35, award-winning works of 35 nominations; the second phase, creating award-winning author field tests, if found inconsistent with the Received original obviously, cancel award-winning, qualification into the show; not yet reached the field testing shall be deemed a waiver of award-winning, qualification into the show.
(3) awards voting and scoring procedures for the introduction of software, on-site assessment of the results of an open day, award-winning online publicity, into the exhibition lists, and announcement 10 days later by the Organizing Committee officially announced the list.
Fourth, Chinese calligraphy large auditorium and the National Exhibition Forum
In order to explore and study the characteristics of contemporary Chinese Calligraphy and trends and to promote theoretical research on the creative practice of calligraphy concern, engagement, promotion of the Ninth National Art Exhibition to achieve more fruitful results, the Chinese decide to hold a Chinese calligraphy Shuxie large auditorium, authoritative experts invited to hold four academic report at the same time hold the "National Exhibition Forum" activities. State Fair Forum in addition to inviting some of calligraphy theory, the author comments of experts, will also face a wide range Shufa Jie Zheng Gao.
1, papers contents and requirements of
(1) on the current practice of calligraphy, writing and research and review articles, including the book altar trend, style, genre, creative accomplishment, on behalf of calligraphers, book body form and technique to explore various aspects of analysis and comment. Topics of the article required is correct, fresh viewpoints, and discussed in clear, plain language, to promote academic and learning physics and chemistry research comments, against the exaggerated touted, slanderous and opportunity to hype, and plagiarism plagiarism.今年的已经过去了,明年的还没有公布征稿。
按照惯例,最早要等明年三月份以后公布征稿启事。
希望您到那时候注意书画网站的展赛资讯,如果订了中国书法、中国艺术报,中国书协的所有展赛征稿他们都是第一个刊登:因为这是中国书协的刊物。
现将第九届书法篆刻展展稿启事给您,供作参考(征稿主要内容可以说年年如此,无大创新),以利准备。
祝您成功!
====================
全国第九届书法篆刻作品展览征稿启事
为了弘扬优秀传统文化,建设和谐文化,全面展示当代中国书法篆刻的艺术成就,推动当代书法篆刻艺术进一步繁荣,经申办和协商,中国书法家协会确定在广东举办全国第九届书法篆刻作品展览。
本届国展坚持邓小平理论和“三个代表”重要思想,全面贯彻落实科学发展观,坚持党的“二为”方向和“双百”方针,把握正确的艺术导向;遵循坚持传统、鼓励创新、多种风格的创作规律;坚持公正、公开、公平的原则,实施阳光评审;全面检验书坛成果,综合考察作者成就,推出精品,推出人才,提升人文精神;推动中国书法事业全面繁荣,为构建社会主义和谐社会贡献力量。
展览期间还将举办中国书法大讲堂、国展论坛和中国书法艺术产业博览会等。现将征稿有关事项公布如下:
一、举办单位
主办单位:中国书法家协会
联合主办单位:广东省委宣传部
承办单位:广东省文学艺术界联合会、广东省书法家协会
二、组织机构
1、组委会
全国第九届书法篆刻作品展览组委会由中国书协和承办方有关领导组成。
2、评审委员会
中国书法家协会依据《中国书法家协会评审委员会产生暂行办法》,组成评委会,负责评审工作。
三、书法作品投稿与评审
1、投稿范围
年满18岁以上的中国公民及海外华人、书法爱好者均可自由投稿。
2、书法作品投稿要求
(1)内容:健康向上的古今诗词、联、赋、格言等均可,提倡自作诗词。
(2)规格:书体不限,书法作品尺寸横竖不超过八尺,以竖式为宜。册页入展数量不超过总数的百分之五。草书、篆书、篆刻须另附释文。
(3)要求:所有作品勿装裱。请用铅笔在作品背面右下角工整注明作者真实姓名、年龄、性别、所在单位、身份证号码、联系电话、详细通讯地址及邮编。为便于准确登记,及时联系作者,请另打印填写《九届国展投稿登记表》,附在作品右下角。
(4)每件作品须从银行或邮局汇参评费30元(勿在信封中夹寄,海外汇30美元),没收到参评费的作品不予评审。
(5)投稿作品数量不限,禁止化名重复投稿。
(6)投稿时需附身份证复印件。中国书协会员另附会员证复印件。中国书协各团体会员组织的作品稿件免初评。
(7)凡需退稿的,投稿同时汇寄人民币50元退稿费,并附退稿费汇款单复印件。
3、展览规模
展出作品1000件左右,其中入展作品900件左右,特邀作品100件左右。
4、奖项设置
全国奖共35名,其中一等奖5名,二等奖10名,三等奖20名,另设获奖提名35件。(以上数量为规定的上限,评审中可根据作品质量情况确定具体名额)。
5、书法作品评审
(1)由中国书法家协会组成本次大展评委会,制定评审细则、评审工作流程和评委守则,明确对评委违规的处理办法。
(2)评审分两个阶段进行,第一阶段,通过初评、复评和终评,从来稿中评出入展作品900件。而后通过投票选出获奖作品35件,获奖提名作品 35件;第二阶段,获奖作者现场创作测试,如发现与投稿原作明显不符的,取消获奖、入展资格;未到现场测试者,视为自动放弃获奖、入展资格。
(3)评奖引进投票和打分程序软件,现场公开评审结果,当天上网公示获奖、入展名单,公示10天后由组委会正式公布名单。
四、中国书法大讲堂与国展论坛
为了探讨和研究当代书法创作的特点和趋势,促进书法理论研究对创作实践的关注、介入,推动九届国展取得更加丰硕的成果,中国书协决定举行中国书法大讲堂,邀请权威专家举行四场学术报告,同时举办“国展论坛”活动。国展论坛除了邀请部分书法理论、评论专家撰文外,还将面向书法界广泛征稿。
1、论文内容和要求
(1)关于当前书法创作和实践的研究及评论文章,包括对书坛大势、风格流派、创作修养、代表书家、书体形式、技巧探索等各个方面进行分析和评论。文章要求选题正确,观点鲜明,论述清晰,语言平实,提倡学术性和学理化的研究评论,反对浮夸吹捧、恶意中伤、借机炒作和抄袭剽窃行为。
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四平梨树胡家历史
uio899
回答了这个问题 | 09-08-27
From the north city of Siping City Lishu County looked, the horizon there is a hill, east-west, stretching more than ten kilometers. Walk through the fields in the north of the city 34 kilometers. Contest of strength Sotero River, an ancient city site that in the present. Soon the ancient city of transverse slope, the four walls clearly visible. Uneven terrain throughout the city, northwest southeast high low, Fang Xiangdong oblique, like partial distortion of the human face. So called partial face of the city. Partial face the walls of the city walls, east wall and the Western Wall, wall and North wall, generally parallel. Each side is about 1000 meters, one meter wide and high of about 56 meters. Four walls and a door, the door has barbican, South Gate and East Gate, are into the corresponding. Wall corners, there are prominent wall, above the top of the wall round the high-profile. This is the turret, standing above you can Liao hope the whole city. The Western Wall and the North wall, there is nursing Moat sites. Partial Face the earliest era of ancient city known as 900 in the Liao and Jin Xi camp, owned by counties under the jurisdiction of the Imjin. The state attributed to Han unification o Unification. 900 Xi camp office due to traffic arteries, to the North-South exchanges must be passed through. Therefore, in the Liao and Jin era, 900 Xi camp is a very important town. At this point, secluded prisoners had too much Song dynasties monarchs: Huizong, Qin Zong two years. Leave a significant sum in history.从四平市梨树县城向北望去,天边有一道山岗,东西走向,绵延十余公里。在城北田间穿行三四公里。过招苏太河,一座古城遗址即在目前。古城顺山坡横下,四面高墙清晰可辨。全城地势不平,西北高而东南低,方向东斜,有如偏歪的人面。故人称偏脸城。偏脸城的城墙为土墙,东墙与西墙,南墙与北墙,大体平行。每面长约千米,宽一米,高五六米左右。四墙有门,门外有瓮城,南北门与东西门,皆成对应。城墙四角,都有突出墙外,高于墙顶的圆形高台。这是角楼,站在上面可以嘹望全城。西墙与北墙外,都有护城壕遗址。偏脸古城在辽金时代最早叫九百奚营,归临津县管辖。统归于韩州统邻。因九百奚营地处交通要道,为南北往来的必经之地。故在辽金时代,九百奚营是相当重要的城镇。在此,曾幽囚过大宋的两朝君主:徽宗,钦宗两年之久。在历史上留下重要一笔。
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以色列人曾奇居哪国四百多年
uio899
回答了这个问题 | 09-08-27
Israel has a long history, is the world's major religions Judaism, Islam and the birthplace of Christianity. The Jews of ancient ancestor is the Hebrew Semitic offshoot. Israel is a nation instead of the original names can be found on the earliest recorded in 1211 BC. In the past three thousand years of history, the Jews as Israel for their national and spiritual core, called the "Holy Land" or "the promised land." Israel has a special meaning in Judaism, including the temple ruins and related religious rituals, are an important foundation for the modern Jewish traditions.
Jews had lived in Egypt 430 years, about 1450 BC (13th century BC) left Egypt moved back to the land of Canaan (now of Palestine), the eleventh century BC, King David of ancient Israel, the Jewish unity of all tribes, the establishment of Kingdom of Israel, Jerusalem as its capital. The tenth century BC, the son of David, King Solomon, after which the two countries split into north and south, the North is composed of 10 tribes of Israel and the southern Kingdom of Judah. 586 BC, the Babylonians captured Jerusalem, the Temple burned. After the reconstruction, an end of the century BC by King Herod to be expanded, but also in AD 70 and 135 was destroyed by the hands of the Romans. During the reign of the Roman Empire, most Jews were expelled from the Palestinian areas, scattered all over Europe, the temple has not been able to resume. Later, in the temple built on the site of devastation from the wall, although the wall of the Islamic holy period of the Western Wall, but the Jews still cherish it, this wall is considered a symbol of Jewish faith and unity. Said to the Romans occupied Jerusalem, Jews often gather here crying. After thousands of years, Jews everywhere to come here often wail, to sustenance of its nostalgia, and thus the name the Wailing Wall. Jews are originally referred to Judah (the Israelis, one of 12 tribes), or the people of the Kingdom of Judah. All the Jews had referred to the Hebrew people, since the move to occupy Palestine until the tribe abducted up to Babylon, also known as the Israelis. After his life in exile, only the person who originally belonged to the Kingdom of Judah remained national identity, the northern Kingdom of Israel in 721 BC after the death in the country Assyrian exile scattered around the world, and even assimilated into other nations, even Israel can be found in Kaifeng in China religions Hall ruins. Thus, the term refers only to the Jews who originally belonged to the Kingdom of Judah.
Experienced the Assyrian, Babylonian, Persian, Greek, Roman, Byzantine and other ancient rule, Jews in this region and the gradual decline of their expulsion, scattered in all over the world, even China's Kaifeng synagogue ruins are. Especially in the year AD 132, a large-scale suppression of the uprisings, the Roman Empire, Jews deported from the area, the names changed to "Syria - Palestine" in an attempt to erase the Jews for thousands of years with this piece of land connected to the scene. Even so, there are still a small part of the Jews remained in Palestine, but the main Jewish population moved north from southern Israel. Judaism of the most important two classics, "Mishna" and "Talmud" Having also written during this period. AD 638, Muslims from the Byzantine Empire to seize control of the region, followed by several Muslim countries ruled in this region; including the Umayyad dynasty, Abbasid dynasty, as well as Khwarezm and Mongolia, in 1260 to 1516 operated by Magi Luke rule, then in 1517 became a province of the Ottoman Empire.
Zionism and the Jews return to
A few centuries, many Jews in exile, has been trying to return to Israel. The 18th century, several small-scale return of tidal waves, ranging from several hundred to a thousand. In 1878, Petah Tikva the first large-scale emergence of the Jewish farm colonies. The first wave began in the return of a large scale in 1881, scattered elsewhere in the world in order to escape persecution of Jews began to return to Palestine, the ancient Jewish state land. Jews from the hands of the Ottoman Empire and the Arabs to buy land and settle. As the Jewish population increased, the relationship between them and the Arabs have become increasingly tense.
In 1896, Vienna, journalist and playwright Theodor Herzl launched the Zionist Movement (also known as "Zionist movement"), called on Jews around the world return to their native land, to restore the national way of life. August 29, 1897 in Basel, Switzerland, he convened the first session of the "World Zionist Congress", the General Assembly resolution to establish "a get public recognition, legal protection of their homes (or countries)." "The Jewish National Fund" and "Palestine Land Development Corporation" and other relevant organizations were established to help Jews around the world to the Palestinian immigrants.
Zion movement to promote the development of a second wave of the reunification (1904-1914 years), about 40000 Jews to return to settle. In 1917, British Foreign Minister Balfour issued a "Balfour Declaration": "His Majesty's Government in favor of the establishment in Palestine of a Jewish nation-state, and will do its utmost to promote its implementation." In 1920, the League commissioned the United Kingdom under the jurisdiction of Palestine. Britain will host in 1922, divided into two parts: the eastern part (now Jordan), place of residence for the Arabs, the western Jewish neighborhoods.
After World War I, the Jews set off a wave of the third and fourth regression. In 1929 a Palestinian uprising broke out, the Arabs killed 133 Jews. Then, in 1936, several years of field -1,939 riots took place. The British in 1939 issued a White Paper to limit the number of Jewish immigration to 75,000 people, and limited the Jews to buy land. The White Paper by many Jews and the Zionists regarded as a betrayal of the Jews, and that it violated the Balfour Declaration. The Arabs did not subside, they want to complete cessation of Jewish immigration.
In 1933, the Nazi rule in Germany, launched the fifth wave of the Jewish return. In 1940, Jews accounted for 30% of the total number of local residents. Later, in Europe during the Holocaust to further promote the return of the Jews. Between 1944 to 1948, more 200,000 Jews was removed through a variety of ways to come to the Palestinian territories. After the Second World War, the Palestinian territories have 600,000 Jewish residents.
Reconquest
In 1947, in view of violence between Jews and Arabs escalating conflict, peace efforts have been 以色列历史悠久,是世界主要宗教犹太教、伊斯兰教和基督教的发源地。犹太人远祖是古代闪族的支脉希伯来人。 以色列最初是指一个民族而非地名,可查最早的记载出现在公元前1211年。在过去三千年的历史中,犹太人视以色列地为自己的民族和精神生活的核心,称之为“圣地”或“应许之地”。以色列在犹太教中具有特别的含义,包括圣殿遗迹和相关的宗教礼仪,都是现代犹太教传统的重要基础。
犹太人曾在埃及旅居430年之久,约在公元前1450年(公元前13世纪)离开埃及迁回到迦南地(现今之巴勒斯坦),公元前十一世纪古以色列王大卫统一犹太各部族,建立以色列王国,定都耶路撒冷。公元前十世纪大卫的儿子所罗门王,之后分裂为南北两国,北方是由十个支派组成的以色列王国和南国犹大王国。公元前586年,巴比伦人攻占耶路撒冷,圣殿付之一炬。以后重建,公元前一世纪末由希律王加以扩建,又于公元70年和135年毁于罗马人之手。罗马帝国统治时期,绝大部分犹太人被赶出巴勒斯坦地区,流散在欧洲各地,圣殿始终未能恢复。后来,在圣殿断垣残壁的遗址上修建起围墙,虽然是伊斯兰圣地围墙西墙的一段,但犹太人仍然珍惜它,这段墙被视为犹太人信仰和团结的象征。据说罗马人占领耶路撒冷时,犹太人常聚在这里哭泣。此后千百年中,常有各地犹太人来此号哭,以寄托其故国之思,因而名哭墙。犹太人是原指犹大支派(以色列人12支派之一)或犹大王国的人民。全体犹太人本来统称希伯来人,自进占巴勒斯坦起至举族被掳往巴比伦为止,又称以色列人。经过流亡生活,只有原属犹大王国的人仍保持民族特征,北方的以色列王国于公元前721年亡于亚述国之后四散流亡到世界各地,甚至同化于其他民族,连中国开封都可找到以色列人宗教会堂遗迹。因此,犹太人一词仅指原属犹大王国之人。
经历过亚述、巴比伦、波斯、希腊、罗马、拜占庭等古国的统治,犹太人在这一地区逐渐衰落并遭驱逐,散于全球各地,连中国的开封都有犹太教会堂的遗迹。尤其是在公元132年的一次大规模起义遭到镇压后,罗马帝国将犹太人驱逐出这一地区,将地名改为“叙利亚-巴勒斯坦”,企图抹灭犹太人千年来与这片土地相连的痕迹。虽然如此,仍有小部分犹太人一直留在巴勒斯坦,但主要的犹太人口从以色列南部移至了北部。犹太教最重要的两本经籍《密西拿》和《塔木德》经也是在这段时期写成。公元638年,穆斯林从拜占庭帝国夺取了该地区的控制权,之后数个穆斯林国家统治过这个地区;包括了倭马亚王朝、阿拔斯王朝,以及花剌子模和蒙古,在1260年至1516年间由马木鲁克统治,接著在1517年成为奥斯曼帝国一个省份。
锡安主义和犹太人回归
数个世纪以来,许许多多流亡海外的犹太人一直试图返回以色列。18世纪便有数波小型的回归潮,从数百到上千人不等。在1878年,佩塔提克瓦出现了第一个大型的犹太人农场殖民区。第一次大规模的回归浪潮则始于1881年,散居在世界其他地区的犹太人为了逃避迫害,开始回流到巴勒斯坦,即古犹太国之地。犹太人从奥斯曼帝国和阿拉伯人手中购买土地并且定居。随着犹太居民的增多,他们与阿拉伯人之间的关系也日趋紧张。
1896年,维也纳记者和剧作家西奥多·赫茨尔发起锡安主义运动(又称“犹太复国主义运动”),号召全世界犹太人回归故土,恢复本民族的生活方式。1897年8月29日在瑞士巴塞尔,他召集了第一届“世界锡安主义大会”,大会决议建立“一个得到公众承认的、有法律保障的家园(或国家)”。“犹太国民基金”和“巴勒斯坦土地开发公司”等相应机构成立,帮助世界各地的犹太人向巴勒斯坦移民。
锡安主义运动的发展推动了第二次回归浪潮(1904-1914年),约有四万名犹太人返回定居。1917年,英国外长贝尔福发表《贝尔福宣言》:“英王陛下政府赞成在巴勒斯坦建立一个犹太人的民族国家,并将尽最大努力促其实现”。1920年,国际联盟委托英国管辖巴勒斯坦。1922年英国将托管地划分为两部分:东部(现约旦)为阿拉伯人居住地,西部为犹太居民区。
第一次世界大战后,犹太人掀起了第三和第四次回归浪潮。在1929年爆发的一场巴勒斯坦暴动中,阿拉伯人杀死了133名犹太人。接著在1936年-1939年又有数场暴动发生。对此英国在1939年颁布了一份白皮书,限制犹太人的移民数量至75,000人,并且限制犹太人购买土地。这份白皮书被许多犹太人和锡安主义者视为是对犹太人的背叛,并且认为那违背了贝尔福宣言。阿拉伯人也并没有就此平息,他们希望完全停止犹太人的移民。
1933年,纳粹在德国执政,掀起第五次犹太人回归浪潮。1940年,犹太人已占当地居民总数的30%。后来在欧洲发生的犹太人大屠杀,进一步推动了犹太人回归。1944至1948年之间,愈20万犹太人通过各种途径辗转来到巴勒斯坦地区。第二次世界大战结束后,巴勒斯坦地区已经有60万犹太居民。
复国
1947年,鉴于犹太人与阿拉伯人之间的暴力冲突不断升级,和平努力受到挫败,英国政府决定从巴勒斯坦托管地脱身。犹太人的移民数量自从19世纪末以来一直稳定增长,受到二战中的犹太人大屠杀影响,犹太人复国的理念也获得越来越多的国际支持。联合国成立了“巴勒斯坦专门委员会”,1947年11月联合国大会表决了《1947年联合国分治方案》,33国赞成(包括美国和苏联),13国反对,10国弃权,通过决议:将巴勒斯坦地区分为两个国家,犹太人和阿拉伯人分别拥有大约55%和45%的领土,耶路撒冷被置于联合国的管理之下,以期避免冲突。
1947年11月29日,联合国通过分治方案的当日,大卫·本-古理安接受了该方案,但被阿拉伯国家联盟断然拒绝。阿盟委员会高层下令对以色列的犹太平民展开为期三天的暴力袭击,攻击建筑、商店、以及住宅区,紧接著犹太人组织的地下民兵部队展开还击,这些战斗很快便蔓延为大规模的冲突,继而引发了1948年的以色列独立战争。
1948年5月14日,在英国的托管期结束前一天的子夜,以色列国正式宣布成立。在1949年1月25日全国选举中,有85%的合格选民参加了投票,接着有120个议席的第一届议会开会。两位曾领导以色列建成国家的人成为该国的领袖,犹太人代办处领导人大卫·本-古里安当选首任总理;世界犹太复国主义组织领导人哈伊姆·魏兹曼由议会选为首任总统。1949年5月11日,以色列取得联合国的席位,成为第59个会员国。
1948年独立战争
在以色列建国之后,埃及、伊拉克、约旦、叙利亚、以及黎巴嫩向以色列宣战,开始了1948年的以色列独立战争。北边的叙利亚、黎巴嫩和伊拉克军队都在接近边界的地方被阻挡下来,来自东方的约旦军队则攻下耶路撒冷的东部,并且对城市的西部展开攻击。不过,犹太人的民兵部队成功的阻挡了约旦军队,而地下的国民军组织部队(Irgun)也阻止了来自南方的埃及军队。从6月开始,联合国宣布了一个月的停火令,在这段期间里以色列国防军正式成立。在数个月的战斗后,双方在1949年达成一则停火协议并划清暂时的边界,这条边界线被称为“绿线”(Green Line)。以色列在约旦河的西方获得了额外的23.5%的管辖领域,约旦则占有以色列南部一块山地区域和撒马里亚,后来那里被称为西岸地区。埃及在沿海地区占有一小块的土地,后来被称为加沙地带。
大量的阿拉伯人口逃离了新成立的犹太人国家,巴勒斯坦人将此次流亡称为“大灾难”(النكبة),预计有400,000至900,000名巴勒斯坦难民流亡,联合国估计有711,000人。以色列与阿拉伯国家之间未解决的冲突、以及巴勒斯坦难民的问题一直持续至今。随著1948年的战争,西岸地区和加沙地带的犹太人口开始撤回以色列,大量来自阿拉伯国家的犹太人难民使得以色列的人口遽增了两倍。在接下来几年里将近850,000名瑟法底犹太人从阿拉伯国家逃离或遭驱逐,其中约有600,000人迁移至以色列,其他的人则移民至欧洲和美国。
犹太人认为自己的祖先几千年前就在巴勒斯坦定居,因此抢占阿拉伯人的土地建立以色列是正义的事实上有规定,一个民族离开故土50年,这块土地就不属于他们了,因此以色列方面所说祖先在巴勒斯坦生活过巴勒斯坦就是其领土完全不成立,这只是其野蛮掠夺的一个借口)。
50年代和60年代
在1954年至1955年间,担任以色列总理的摩西·夏里特(Moshe Sharett)试图轰炸埃及未遂而爆发丑闻,造成以色列在政治上蒙羞。埃及在1956年国有化了苏伊士运河,英国和法国对此相当不满。以色列在遭到一连串阿拉伯地下民兵部队的袭击后,秘密的与英法两国结盟,并且对埃及宣战。在苏伊士运河危机后,三个国家遭到联合国的谴责,以色列被迫从西奈半岛撤军。
在1955年,大卫·本-古理安再次成为以色列总理,并且一直任职到1963年才辞职。在古理安辞职后,列维·艾希科尔(Levi Eshkol)继任了总理。
在1961年,纳粹的战争犯、也是欧洲犹太人大屠杀主谋之一的阿道夫·艾希曼在阿根廷的布宜诺斯艾利斯遭到以色列的摩萨德(Mossad)情报局干员逮捕,并且被送回以色列接受审判。艾希曼成为以色列历史上唯一一个遭到法庭判决死刑的罪犯。
在政治舞台上,以色列和阿拉伯国家的关系在1967年5月再次紧绷。叙利亚、约旦、和埃及透露了开战的意图,埃及并且驱逐了在加沙地带的联合国维和部队。埃及违反了之前立定的条约、并且封锁了以色列战略要地的堤蓝海峡,接著又在以色列边界部署大量的战车和战机,以色列于是以埃及挑衅为由在6月5日对埃及展开先发制人的攻势。在这场六日战争中,以色列击败了所有阿拉伯邻国的军队,并且在空军战场上获得完全的胜利。以色列一口气夺下了整个西岸地区、加沙地带、西奈半岛、和戈兰高地,1949年划定的绿线则变成以色列管辖国内领土和占领区域的行政分界线。后来在签订一则和平协议后,以色列将西奈半岛还给了埃及。
在战争中以色列空军误炸了一艘美军的情报船自由号(USS Liberty),造成34名美军死亡。美国和以色列的调查总结认为这场意外是因为自由号的辨识困难而造成的误击事件。
在1969年,以色列的第一名女性总理梅尔夫人当选。
70年代
1968年至1972年这段期间被称为消耗战争(War of Attrition),以色列和叙利亚、埃及间的边界频繁爆发许多小规模的冲突。除此之外,在1970年代早期,巴勒斯坦武装部队对以色列和各国的犹太人展开了规模空前的恐怖攻击,在1972年夏季奥林匹克运动会中爆发了慕尼黑惨案,巴勒斯坦的武装民兵挟持以色列的代表团成员作为人质,最后所有人质皆遭杀害。以色列对此展开了报复性的“上帝之怒行动”(Operation Wrath of God),由一群以色列摩萨德情报局的干员在世界各地行刺那些筹划慕尼黑惨案的幕后凶手。
最后,在1973年10月6日,正值犹太人传统的赎罪日那天,埃及和叙利亚对以色列发起了突袭攻势。尽管阿拉伯国家在战争初期成功打击了准备不足的以色列军队,埃及和叙利亚最终仍被以色列击退。战后的几年局势变的较为平静,以色列和埃及终于得以达成和平协议。
在1974年,伊扎克·拉宾继承梅尔夫人成为第五任总理。1977年的国会选举成为以色列政治历史上的主要转折点,从1948年来一直支配以色列政坛的工党联盟(המערך)遭到梅纳赫姆·贝京领导的联合党击败,这次选举在以色列还被称为是一场“革命”。
接著,在当年的11月,埃及的总统萨达特史无前例的拜访了以色列,在以色列国会进行演讲,这是以色列建国以来第一次获得阿拉国国家的承认。以色列军队的后备军官也组成和平运动以支持这次谈和。在萨达特拜访之后,两国间进行的和平谈判最后签下了大卫营和约。在1979年3月,贝京和沙达特在美国华盛顿特区达成以色列-埃及和平条约。随著条约的签订,以色列从西奈半岛撤军,并且撤离了自从1970年代开始在那里建立的移民区。以色列也同意依据1949年划定的绿线让巴勒斯坦获得自治权。
80年代
在1981年6月7日,以色列空军轰炸了伊拉克在奥西拉克(Osirak)建立的核子反应炉,阻止了伊拉克制造核武器的企图,这次任务又被称为巴比伦行动。
在1982年,以色列对黎巴嫩发动了一场攻势,卷入自从1975年以来一直进行的黎巴嫩内战。以色列的开战理由为保护以色列在北方的殖民区,当时殖民区经常受到来自黎巴嫩的恐怖攻击。在建立了四十公里的障碍区后,以色列国防军继续前进,甚至攻下了首都贝鲁特。以色列军队将巴勒斯坦解放组织逐出了黎巴嫩,迫使巴解转移基地至突尼斯。由于无法承担战争带来的压力,总理贝京在1983年辞职,由伊扎克·沙米尔(Yitzhak Shamir)继任。以色列最后在1986年撤出了大部分在黎巴嫩的军队,边界的缓冲地带则一直被维持,直到2000年以色列进行单方面的撤军。
在1980年代里,原本由伊扎克·沙米尔领导的右派政府被左派的西蒙·佩雷斯取代。佩雷斯从1984年开始担任总哩,但在1986年又被沙米尔取代,沙米尔达成了一个政党联盟的协议。在1987年爆发的巴勒斯坦大起义引燃了占领区域的一连串暴动,在暴动后沙米尔再次于1988年的选举中连任总理职位。
90年代
在波斯湾战争中,虽然以色列不是反伊拉克的联盟国之一、也没有实际参与伊拉克战事,以色列仍遭到39枚飞毛腿导弹击中。导弹并没有直接杀害任何以色列的公民,倒是有一些人因为不正确使用预备的防毒面具而死亡,除此之外一名以色列人遭到爱国者导弹碎片击中而丧命。在战事中,以色列也向在西岸和加沙地带的巴勒斯坦人提供防毒面具,以免他们遭伊拉克的生化武器攻击。尽管如此,巴解仍然表示支持萨达姆政权,一些巴勒斯坦居民甚至还站在屋顶上替来袭的飞毛腿导弹欢呼,虽然最后他们仍使用了以色列人提供的防毒面具。
在1990年代早期,苏联的大量犹太人开始移民至以色列,依据以色列的回归法,这些人在抵达以色列时便能取得以色列公民权。大约有380,000人在1990-1991年抵达以色列。虽然以色列大众最初相当支持回归法,新移民造成的许多问题被工党作为选战中的把柄,批评执政的联合党没有解决他们的工作和住房问题。结果在1992年的选举中,新移民们大量投票给工党,使得左派再次抬头。
在选举之后,伊扎克·拉宾成为了总理。在选举中工党曾经承诺将会大为改善以色列的国内治安和与阿拉伯国家的关系。到了1993年底,以色列政府抛弃了1991年的马德里协议框架,改与巴解签订奥斯陆协议(Oslo Accords)。在1994年,约旦成为继埃及之后第二个承诺与以色列和平共处的阿拉伯国家。
最初以色列大众广泛支持奥斯陆协议,然而在协议签订之后以色列仍然持续遭到哈马斯武装团体的频繁攻击,协议受到的支持也开始大量减少。在1995年11月4日,拉宾遭到一名极端的以色列民族主义者刺杀。
由于拉宾的遇刺,大众对于奥斯陆协议的观感也稍有好转,大为提升了西蒙·佩雷斯的支持度,使他赢得了1996年的大选。不过,新的一波自杀炸弹攻势加上阿拉法特赞美炸弹客的声明,使得公众舆论再次扭转,并且在1996年5月输给了联合党的本雅明·内塔尼亚胡。
虽然内塔尼亚胡被视为是奥斯陆协议的坚定反对者,他仍然决定从希伯伦(Hebron)撤军,并且签下了怀伊备忘录(Wye River Memorandum),给予巴勒斯坦民族权力机构更大的自治权力。在内塔尼亚胡任内巴勒斯坦团体对以色列平民的袭击活动大为减少,然而他的联合政府仍然在1999年垮台。在1999年选举中工党的埃胡德·巴拉克以大幅票数差距击败内塔尼亚胡而继任总理。
2000年后
伊拉克在2000年决定单边的从黎巴嫩撤军,这次撤军也是为了阻挠真主党对以色列的攻击,迫使他们不得不跨越以色列边界才能发动攻击。巴拉克和亚西尔·阿拉法特曾在美国总统比尔·克林顿的斡旋下于2000年在戴维营进行协商,然而协商最后失败了,巴拉克提出的条件是一个由73%西岸地区和100%加沙地带组成的巴勒斯坦国家,并且在10至25年时间内将西岸地区的巴勒斯坦领域扩展至90%(排除耶路撒冷郊区则是94%),但阿拉法特拒绝这个提议。
2003年6月4日,在乔治·沃克·布什主持下,巴勒斯坦权力机构主席马赫姆得·阿巴斯和以色列前总理沙龙于约旦相会。在谈判破裂后,巴勒斯坦开始了第二次的暴动,被称为阿克萨群众起义,暴动开始的时间就发生在以色列反对派领袖艾里尔·沙龙访问耶路撒冷圣殿山(Temple Mount)之后不久。协商的失败以及新战争的爆发使得许多以色列人对巴拉克政府感到失望,并且也使和平协议的支持度大减。
在一场总理的特别选举后,艾里尔·沙龙在2001年3月成为了新的总理,稍后又在2003年的选举中当选了连任。沙龙开始从加沙地带进行单边的撤军,这次撤军在2005年8月至9月间实行完成。
以色列也在西岸地区建立了围墙,目的是为了保护以色列免遭武装巴勒斯坦团体的攻击。为了建立长达681公里的围墙,接近围墙的缓冲地区也连带的减少了9.5%的西岸地区面积,使得巴勒斯坦居民的经济状况遭遇困难。围墙的建立遭致了国际间的许多批评,也遭到一些以色列极左派的批评,不过,围墙的确有效的减少了对以色列平民的攻击事件。
在艾里尔·沙龙严重中风之后,总理权力转移给了艾胡德·奥尔默特。在2006年4月14日,在前进党赢得了大选后,奥尔默特当选为以色列总理。奥尔默特的前进党也在2006年的2006年的选举中赢得了多数派席位。
在2006年6月28日,哈玛斯的民兵部队从加沙地带挖地道潜入以色列境内攻击以色列国防军的据点,俘虏了一名以色列士兵必且杀害了其他两名。以色列对此展开了夏雨行动,大量轰炸哈玛斯目标以及其他桥梁、道路、以及发电站。以色列也派军占领此地区。
2006年6月13日爆发的以黎冲突发生在以色列北部和黎巴嫩地区,主要是介于真主党和以色列之间的冲突。冲突始于真主党之前在一次跨越边界的袭击行动中杀害了八名以色列士兵并且俘虏其他两名,以色列认为黎巴嫩政府必须对这次攻击负起责任,因此从海上和空中对黎巴嫩展开轰炸,并且进军黎巴嫩南部。真主党继续使用火箭攻击以色列北部,并且以游击队的打带跑战术袭击以色列军队。最后以色列在2006年8月14日达成一则停火令。这场冲突杀害了一千名黎巴嫩平民、440名真主党民兵、以及119名以色列士兵,也对黎巴嫩城市的基础建设造成了庞大损害。
2008年9月18日凌晨,外交部长利夫尼在以色列执政党前进党17日党主席初选中以微弱优势获胜,将接替奥尔默特成为前进党成立3年来的第三任党主席和第一位女性党主席。 据报道,最终统计结果显示,利夫尼获得43.1%的选票,领先其最大竞争对手、交通部长莫法兹1.1个百分点。,因此利夫尼最终胜出,成为以色列历史上第二位女性总理。
2008年12月28日 以色列战机和武装直升机27日对哈马斯控制的加沙地带发动了大规模空袭,巴勒斯坦伊斯兰抵抗运动(哈马斯)发言人巴尔胡姆27日要求其下属武装派别对以色列发射远程火箭弹,以报复以军空袭加沙。
这次空袭是自1967年中东战争以来,以军袭击所造成的巴勒斯坦人单日死亡人数最多的一次。加沙地区应急机构负责人29日表示,以色列对哈马斯发动的空袭已造成310人死亡,另有1400余人受伤。巴勒斯坦27日宣布未来三天为哀悼日。
以色列外长利夫尼表示,选在这个时候痛击哈马斯的原因很简单,因为哈马斯违反半年前的停火协议,几乎每天以火箭、迫击炮攻击以色列平民。最近更变本加厉,上周曾有一天发射80枚火箭的纪录。因此以色列无法再忍受。
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初一暑假作业本25页历史猜谜语
uio899
回答了这个问题 | 09-08-27
Which is the most handsome of the keyboard keys?
A: F4
26 letters, E and T is gone, I ask how many letters do?
A: 21, because ET is sitting UFO go.
A man wearing a helmet, the above tied a fan, left hand holding a fan, right hand holding a water bottle, shoed skates, where will he go? (Answer: a mental hospital)
Family rules and the state-owned State regulations, the zoo, what rules?
Turtle
1 melon, cucumber, watermelon, pumpkin could eat, what not to eat melons?
Answer: Fool
2 bowls of water, there are six buns, six children each assigned to one, but the basin still sported one, and why? Answer:
The last one took away the child along with the basin
3 with the fastest speed you can put the ice into water? Answer:
The "ice" to remove the word two, it becomes a "water."
4 winter, baby stand the cold, to the house is not willing to hat. But he met a man obediently took off his hat, then Who? Answer:
Hairdresser
5 Pharaoh forty to fifty times a day scraping the face, his face still has a beard. What is the reason? Answer:
Pharaoh is a hairdresser
6 there is a word that everyone will read the wrong met. What is this word? Answer:
This is the "wrong" word
7 Xiao-Hua at home, and who looks the most like? Answer:
Own
8 egg shell what is the use? Answer:
To wrap the egg white and egg yolk.
9 do not have to spend effort to fight what it is? Answer:
Yawn
10 you can do, I can do, we all do; a person can do, two people can not work together. This is what to do? Answer:
Dream
11 per person per day must be something serious to do? Answer:
Sleep
12 Who has always been afraid to bathe answer:
Clay
13 Xiao-Ming never go to school but got a model student, why is the answer:
Xiao-Ming is a deaf-mute students
14 What is the car unable to move? Answer:
Windmill
15 Which 28 days a month? Answer:
Every month, 28 days
16 Do you know what classes to sleep without you? Answer:
Well comfortable than the bed
17 What kind of wine do not drink? Answer:
Iodine
18 What is the least rotten egg fight, cook unfamiliar, not to eat? Answer:
Examinations of the Ling Dan "0"
19 hit something, do not have to spend effort? Answer:
Doze
20 train from Beijing to Shanghai and need six hours to exercise 3 hours later, the train that in what place? Answer:
In the car on the track
21 When the clock does not go? Answer:
Originally the clock will not go
22 bookstores can not buy what books answer:
Testament
23 What is the narrowest way? Answer:
Yuanjialuzhai
24 What can not eat? Answer:
"Things" direction
25 a person falling from the plane, why do not fall to their deaths? Answer:
Aircraft parked on the ground
26 flowers in full bloom throughout the year What is the flower? Answer:
Plastic flowers
27 What most people like to listen to the English alphabet? Answer:
CD
28 What person is sick, never see a doctor? Answer:
Blind
29 Xiao-Ming know the answer papers, why he would frequently look at the students? Answer:
Xiao-Ming a teacher
30 Why does an egg with a hammer hammer hammer is not broken? Answer:
Hammer Of course not broken
31 boxing champion knocked down easily by whom? Answer:
Sleepy
32 days I do not know what to know, you do not know I know? Answer:
Soles broken
33 a person walking on the beach, but he did not find footprints behind, and why? Answer:
He was walking backwards
34, a truck driver who knocked down by a motorcycle, truck driver seriously injured motorcyclists had nothing to do, and why? Answer:
Truck driver was not driving
35 morning and wake up everyone the first thing to do that? Answer:
Eyes
36 You can use blue pen to write in red come? Answer:
Write a "red" character of the hard
37, turn right when the car, which only the tires turn? Answer:
Spare tire
38 Confucius and Mencius What is the difference? Answer:
Confucius's son left in the above sub-Mencius
39 Why is Amy from the first form to the junior high school in a text? Answer:
Who started the third-year, two days to learn a lesson, not bad a!
40 a person can eat up a few eggs in an empty stomach? Answer:
一个. Eating is not an empty stomach after a
41 When one foot onto the New World after Columbus, followed by what to do? Answer:
Onto the other foot
42 caterpillars at home, the father said a word, and my father fainted on the spot, Caterpillar said something? Answer:
Caterpillar said: "I want to buy shoes."
43 aircraft fell from the sky, why not an injury? Answer:
All dead
44 What is the middle of the Pacific Ocean? Answer:
Is a flat character
45 of the world's smallest island What is this? Answer:
Refuges on the road
46 a chicken and a goose on the fridge at the same time, why did the chicken dead geese die? Answer:
Penguin Well
47, four individuals in a small room, playing mahjong (no one else is watching), then the police came, and four individuals ran, but police caught another room to a person, why? Answer:
Four people in the room playing a place called "Mahjong" who, the police caught him
480,000 Who is king of beasts? Answer:
Zoo
49 What you can solve all the mystery? Answer:
Answer
50 What kind of person will emerge after death? Answer:
Movie person
51 specifically inquire about other people love things people? Answer:
Reporter
52 Who is the voice of speech is far away? Answer:
Caller键盘上最帅的是哪个键?
答:F4
26个字母,E和T走了,请问还有多少个字母呢?
答:21个,因为ET是坐UFO走的。
有一个人头戴安全帽,上面绑着一把扇子,左手拿着电风扇,右手拿着水壶,脚穿溜冰鞋,请问他要去哪里? (答案:精神病院)
家有家规,国有国规,动物园有什么规?
乌龟
1冬瓜、黄瓜、西瓜、南瓜都能吃,什么瓜不能吃?
答案:傻瓜
2 盆里有6只馒头,6个小朋友每人分到1只,但盆里还留着1只,为什么? 答案:
最后一个小朋友把盆子一起拿走了
3 你能以最快速度,把冰变成水吗? 答案:
把“冰”字去掉两点,就成了“水”。
4 冬天,宝宝怕冷,到了屋里也不肯脱帽。可是他见了一个人乖乖地脱下帽,那人是谁? 答案:
理发师
5 老王一天要刮四五十次脸,脸上却仍有胡子。这是什么原因? 答案:
老王是个理发师
6 有一个字,人人见了都会念错。这是什么字? 答案:
这是“错”字
7 小华在家里,和谁长得最像? 答案:
自己
8 鸡蛋壳有什么用处? 答案:
用来包蛋清和蛋黄。
9 不必花力气打的东西是什么? 答案:
打哈欠
10 你能做,我能做,大家都做;一个人能做,两个人不能一起做。这是做什么? 答案:
做梦
11 什么事每人每天都必须认真的做? 答案:
睡觉
12 什么人始终不敢洗澡 答案:
泥人
13 小明从不念书却得了模范生,为什么 答案:
小明是聋哑学生
14 什么车子寸步难行? 答案:
风车
15 哪一个月有二十八天? 答案:
每个月都有28天
16 你知道上课睡觉有什么不好吗? 答案:
不如床上舒服嘛
17 什么酒不能喝? 答案:
碘酒
18 什么蛋打不烂,煮不熟,更不能吃? 答案:
考试得的零蛋"0"
19 打什么东西,不必花力气? 答案:
打瞌睡
20 火车由北京到上海需要6小时,行使3小时后,火车该在什么地方? 答案:
在车轨上
21 时钟什么时候不会走? 答案:
时钟本来就不会走
22 书店里买不到什么书 答案:
遗书
23 什么路最窄? 答案:
冤家路窄
24 什么东西不能吃? 答案:
“东西”方向
25 一个人从飞机上掉下来,为什么没摔死呢? 答案:
飞机停在地上
26 一年四季都盛开的花是什么花? 答案:
塑料花
27 什么英文字母最多人喜欢听? 答案:
CD
28 什么人生病从来不看医生? 答案:
盲人
29 小明知道试卷的答案,为什么还频频看同学的? 答案:
小明是老师
30 用铁锤锤鸡蛋为什么锤不破? 答案:
铁锤当然不会破了
31拳击冠军很容易被谁击倒? 答案:
瞌睡虫
32 什么事天不知地知,你不知我知? 答案:
鞋底破了
33 一个人在沙滩上行走,但在他的身后却没有发现脚印,为什么? 答案:
他在倒着走
34 一位卡车司机撞倒一个骑摩托车的人,卡车司机受重伤,摩托车骑士却没事,为什么? 答案:
卡车司机当时没开车
35 早晨醒来,每个人都要做的第一件事是什么? 答案:
睁开眼睛
36 你能用蓝笔写出红字来吗? 答案:
写个“红”字有何难
37 汽车在右转弯时,哪只轮胎不转? 答案:
备用胎
38 孔子与孟子有什么区别? 答案:
孔子的子在左边,孟子的子在上边
39 为什么小王从初一到初三就学了一篇课文? 答案:
初一到初三,两天学一课,算不错了!
40 一个人空肚子最多能吃几个鸡蛋? 答案:
一个。因为吃了一个后就不是空肚子了
41 当哥伦布一只脚迈上新大陆后,紧接着做什么? 答案:
迈上另一只脚
42 毛毛虫回到家,对爸爸说了一句话,爸爸即场晕倒,毛毛虫说了什么话? 答案:
毛毛虫说:“我要买鞋。”
43 飞机从天上掉下来,为什么没有一个受伤的? 答案:
全都死了
44 太平洋的中间是什么? 答案:
是平字
45 世界上最小的岛是什么? 答案:
马路上的安全岛
46 把一只鸡和一只鹅同时放在冰箱里,为什么鸡死了鹅没死? 答案:
企鹅嘛
47 四个人在一间小屋里打麻将(没有其他人在看着),这时警察来了,四个人都跑了,可是警察到了屋里又抓到一个人,为什么? 答案:
四个人在屋里打一个叫“麻将”的人,警察抓到的是他
48 万兽大王是谁? 答案:
动物园园长
49 用什么可以解开所有的谜? 答案:
答案
50 什么样的人死后还会出现? 答案:
电影中的人
51 专爱打听别人事的人是谁? 答案:
记者
52 谁说话的声音传得最远? 答案:
打电话的人
53 什么东西的制造日期和有效期是同一天? 答案:
日报
54 小咪昨晚花了整整一个晚上在历史课本上,可第二天妈妈还是骂她不用功,为什么? 答案:
她用历史课本当枕头睡
55 能否用树叶遮住天空? 答案:
只要用树叶盖住眼睛
56 一头牛,向北走10米,再向西走10米,再向南走10米,倒退右转,问牛的尾巴朝哪儿? 答案:
朝地
57 为什么黑人喜欢吃白色巧克力?wenwen 答案:
害怕咬到自己的手
58 把8分成两半,是多少? 答案:
0
59 口吃的人最吃亏的是? 答案:
打国际长途电话
60 什么东西使人哭笑不得? 答案:
口罩
61身份证掉了怎么办? 答案:
捡起来
62 有个人走独木桥,前面来了一只老虎,后面来了只熊,这个人是怎么过去的? 答案:
晕过去了
63 监狱里关着两名犯人,一天晚上犯人都逃跑了,可是第二天看守员打开牢门一看,里面还有一个犯人? 答案:
逃跑的犯人名字叫“都”
64 小明的妈妈有三个儿子,大独生子叫大明,二儿子叫二明,三儿子叫什么? 答案:
当然叫小明
65 猫见了老鼠为什么拔腿就跑? 答案:
跑去捉老鼠
66 大象的左边耳朵象什么? 答案:
右边耳朵
67 针掉到大海怎么办? 答案:
再买一颗
68 有一个人走在沙滩上,回头却看不见自己的脚印,为什么? 答案:
因为他倒着走
69 一只候鸟从南方飞到北方要用一个小时,而从北方飞到南方则需二个半小时,为什么呢? 答案:
两个半小时不就是一个小时吗
70什么人骗别人也骗自己?答案:
骗子
71 李先生到16层楼去谈生意,但他只乘电梯到14层楼,然后再步行爬楼梯上去,为什么? 答案:
李先生个子太矮,按不到16楼的电梯按键
72 一个小孩和一个大人在漆黑的夜晚走路,小孩是大人的儿子,大人却不是小孩的父亲,请问为什么? 答案:
因为他们是母子关系
73 什么字全世界通用? 答案:
阿拉伯数字
74 一个人的前面放了一本又厚又宽的大书,他想跨过去可怎么也跨不过去,你知道这是什么原因吗? 答案:
因为书就放在墙角
75 人的长寿秘诀是什么? 答案:
保持呼吸,不要断气
76 什么时候看到的月亮最大? 答案:
登上月球时
77 什么人一年中只工作一天? 答案:
圣诞老人
78 什么事睁一只眼闭一只眼比较好? 答案:
射击
79 为什么刚出生的小孩只有一只左眼睛? 答案:
人本来就只有一只左眼睛
80 哪颗牙最后长出来? 答案:
假牙
81 房间里着火了,小明怎么也拉不开门,请问他后来是怎么出去的? 答案:
推开门
82 蓝兰并没生病,但她整个晚上嘴巴一张一合? 答案:
她吃瓜子
83 什么最会弄虚做假? 答案:
魔术师
84 有两个面的盒子吗? 答案:
有!里面和外面
85 铁放在屋外露天会生锈,那么金子呢? 答案:
会被偷走
86 拿鸡蛋扔石头,为什么鸡蛋没破? 答案:
左手拿蛋右手扔石头,鸡蛋怎么会破?
87 “新华字典”有多少个字? 答案:
四个
88 超人和蝙蝠侠有什么不同? 答案:
一个内裤穿里面,一个穿外面
89 什么人心肠最不好? 答案:
得胃肠炎的人.
90 客人送来一篮草莓,贝贝吵着要吃草莓。可妈妈偏说家里没有草莓为什么 答案:
客人送来的只是一幅画
从来没见过的爷爷他是什么爷爷? 答案:
老天爷
92 2对父子去打猎,他们每人达了一只野鸭 ,但是总共却只有3只,为什么? 答案:
祖孙3人
93 一个病人到医院去做健康检查,为什么医生说:“你离我远一点”请问这 病人得了什么病? 答案:
斗鸡眼
94 什么东西没吃的时候是绿的,吃的时候是红的,吐出来的是黑的? 答案:
西瓜
95 为什么太阳天天都比人起的早? 答案:
因为:人比太阳睡的晚!
96 一只狼钻进羊圈,想吃羊,可是它为啥没吃又没吃羊? 答案:
因为:羊圈里没有羊!
97 有卖的,没买的,每天卖了不少的。 答案:
门坎
98 什么船最安全? 答案:
停在海滩里的船
99 山坡上有一群羊,来了一群羊。一共有几群羊? 答案:
还是一群呀!
100 想把梦变成现实,第一步应该干什么? 答案:
起床。
101 大熊猫一生中的最大遗憾是什么? 答案:
没有彩色照片
102 下雨了,大家都急着回家,可有一个人却不紧不慢地走着(他没撑雨伞) 有人问他为什么不赶紧回家,他说了一句话,使那人晕了过去,请问他说 了什么话? 答案:
“急什么,前面还不是有雨!”
103 老板从来不会烧菜,可他每天都会烧相同的一道菜,请问这是什么菜? 答案:
“炒鱿鱼”
104 读书人最难堪的事是什么? 答案:
想买一本书时,猛然发现包里没钱
105 哥哥买了3袋米,弟弟买了2袋米,回家后他们把米放在1只大袋里, 现在他们有几袋米? 答案:
1袋米
106 小明考了100分,为什麽哭了? 答案:
乐哭的
107 小王是一名优秀士兵,在站岗值勤时,明明看到有敌人悄悄向他摸过 来,为什么他却睁一只眼闭一只眼? 答案:
他在瞄准敌人~
108 为什么彤彤与壮壮第一次见面就一口咬定壮壮是喝羊奶长大的? 答案:
壮壮是一只羊
109 有一种东西,上升的时候同时会下降下降的同时会上升,这是什么? 答案:
跷跷板
110 做什么事要从头来。 答案:
剃头
111 有一只公鸡在屋顶上下蛋,你说鸡蛋会从左边掉下还是右边? 答案:
公鸡不会下蛋
112 大力士永远也举不起的东西是什么? 答案:
他(她)自己
113 为什么青蛙跳得比树高 答案:
树不会跳
114 三心二意的人是什么人? 答案:
多心的人,因为那个人有三颗心.
115 80厘米长的红螃蟹和30厘米长的黑螃蟹比赛跑步,谁会赢? 答案:
黑螃蟹。因为红螃蟹是煮熟的。
116 元帅比将军高一个等级,什么时候元帅和将军平等? 答案:
下象棋
117 什么东西掉进水里不会湿? 答案:
影子。
118 小王是个司机,有一天开车出了车祸,当警察赶到时,发现车上有一个死人,小王确说不管他的事,为什么? 答案:
小王开的是灵车
119 什么动物天天熬夜? 答案:
熊猫,它熬得眼圈都黑了。
120 一头小猪卖200元,为什么两头小猪却可以卖几万元人民币? 答案:
因为长了两个头的小猪实在罕见。
一个人,一只船,一只狗,一只兔子,一棵白菜,着个人要把着三样东西,运到 河那边,先送那两个? 答案:
先送狗和白菜
122 什么人最喜欢别人叫他滚 答案:
监狱里的人
123 用什么拖地最干净? 答案:
用力
124 人为什么喜欢往上爬? 答案:
因为人是猴子变的。
125 大象的长鼻子是怎么长成的? 答案:
出生时就有。
126 一艘船最多能承受50个人,现在已经坐了49个人了,又来了一个人,那艘 船却沉了,为什么? 答案:
因为那是潜水艇
127 桌子上有一个蜡烛和一个煤油灯,请问先点哪一个? 答案:
火柴
128 动物园的大象死了,为什么管理员哭得死去活来? 答案:
因为他想到挖这么大的坑,可能会累死.
129 为什么现在的猴子越来越少了? 答案:
都变成人了。
130 小明整天说个不停,为什么今天一句话不说了? 答案:
因为他嗓子哑了。
131 为什么新买的袜子有两个洞? 答案:
要不然怎么穿
132 小东上课睡觉,老师却不说他,为什麽? 答案:
老师没看见
133 为什么一匹大青马掉进饭碗里淹死了? 答案:
一只蛐蛐的昵称
134 抓到什么贼后可以马上处死刑? 答案:
乌贼
135 一只毛毛虫(八只脚)走上一堆牛粪,下地以后却发现只有六只脚印,为 什么? 答案:
牛粪很臭,两只脚捏住鼻子了
136 大雁为什么向南飞? 答案:
以为走的太慢了,就飞啊
137 有一座桥只能乘重70公斤,一个人重65公斤,他要带两个分别重2.6公斤 的球过桥,没借用任何东西就从桥上把两个球带了过去,他是怎么过去? 答案:
抛起一个球,待它要落下的时候把另一个抛起.
138 平时吃晚饭都是爸爸洗碗,可今天爸爸为什么吃完饭却不洗碗? 答案:
今天在饭馆里吃的饭
139 有一只毛毛虫要过河,前面没有桥,问它是怎么过去的 答案:
变成蝴蝶飞过去
140 什么动物你打死了它,却流了你的血? 答案:
蚊子
141 一根生锈的绣花针,在7月7日7时7分7秒,浩月当空之时,扔到云南饵海中将会发生什么反应? 答案:
掉到海底
142 什么筋伤了不能贴膏药? 答案:
伤脑筋。
143 奇妙的关系 在斜坡上,有两个人推车。迎面走过来一个人,问前面的那个人:“后边 的那个人是你的儿子吗?”那个人说:“是!”他又问后面的那个人: “前面的那个人是你的爸爸吗?”他却说:“不是!”请问这是什么关 系? 答案:
母子关系
144 打破了什么人人都叫好? 答案:
世界纪录
145 一个人掉到海里,为什么他的头发没有湿? 答案:
因为他是光头
146 什么东西人们都不想要? 答案:
病。
147 森林中有十只鸟,小明开枪打死了一只,其它九只却都没有飞走,为什 么? 答案:
鸵鸟
148 你每天都能看见的最大的影子是什么? 答案:
黑夜,地球的影子
149 积木倒了要重搭,房子倒了要怎样? 答案:
要逃命
150 熊为什么冬眠时会睡这么久? 答案:
因为没人敢叫它起床
151有一个小圆孔的直径只有1厘米,而一种体积达100立方米的物体却能顺利 通过这个小孔,那么它是什么物体呢? 答案:
答案是水,你才到了吗?
152 小明从六楼向下跳,为什么还没有受伤? 答案:
他转身向房间里跳的。
153 上课时,老师问同学:“没有人类及动物居住的地球是什么呢?”小名很 快便答对了。你知道他的答案是什么吗? 答案:
地球仪
154 什么地方盛产安哥拉兔毛? 答案:
安哥拉兔身上
155 为什么金鱼看上去老是傻乎乎的? 答案:
它脑袋里灌水了。
156 一个老爷爷要过桥,前面是狼,后面是虎,老爷爷该怎么 办? 答案:
晕过去
157 你爷爷的儿子的爸爸的妈妈的姑姑的小姨的叔叔的大伯跟你是什麽关系? 答案:
亲戚!
158 一个长方体盒子,有8个角,8条边,请问这个长方体盒子从中剪切开,还剩几 个角,几条边? 答案:
还有8个角,8条边!
159 读一年级的东东没有学过外文,为什么也会写外国字? 答案:
他写的是阿拉伯数字。
160 是黑鸡厉害还是白鸡厉害? 答案:
黑鸡。因为黑鸡会下白蛋,白鸡不会下黑蛋!
161 为什么老师一看到小宝就知道他爸爸是左撇子? 答案:
因为他的右脸上有五道痕。
162 你打死了一个动物,为什么流的是自己的血. 答案:
因为打死了一只正在吸自己血的蚊子
163 有一个东西,你能用左手拿,不能用右手拿,这东西是什么。 答案:
自己的右手
164 螳螂请蜈蚣和壁虎到家中做客,烧菜的时候发现酱油没了饿,蜈蚣自告 奋勇出去买,却久久未会,究竟发生了什么事? 答案:
打开门后,发现蜈蚣还坐在门口穿鞋
165 什么人重来不洗头发? 答案:
和尚
166 一只狗和一只青蛙比赛游泳平常都是青蛙游的快,为什么在一次比赛中狗 赢了? 答案:
因为当时的比赛规则是之许用狗刨,不许用蛙泳!
167 小伟的书包里藏着一个鸭蛋,他为什么不肯拿出来交给妈妈做菜? 答案:
那是考卷上的“大鸭蛋
168 人死了为什麽要闭眼睛? 答案:
因为睁着眼睛会吓死人的!
169 黑手党为什么喜欢戴白手套? 答案:
因为手太黑。
170 国歌一共有几个字 答案:
两个
171 一块天然的黑色大理石,在一月一日扔入太平洋,会发生什敏麽? 答案:
大理石沉入太平洋
172 有5只小蚂蚁,每只小蚂蚁都说它身后还有1只小蚂蚁,为什么? 答案:
有只小蚂蚁在说谎
173 什么牛不吃草? 答案:
蜗牛
174 老师说:“我们的身体里有106块骨头”,可是,小明说:“他身体里有 107块骨头”,这是为什么? 答案:
因为小明不小心吃下一块鱼骨头。
175 什么书既没有作者,也没人能读懂? 答案:
当然是天书啦!
176 一个人一年中哪一天睡觉时间最长? 答案:
一年中的最后一天,因为他跨越到第二年。
177 树上"qi"个猴,地下"yi"个猴,一共几个猴? 答案:
两个猴.
178 自找苦吃的地方是哪儿? 答案:
药房
179 一间牢房关了两个犯人,其中一个因偷窃要关一年,另一个是强盗杀人犯 却只关两个星期,为什么? 答案:
强盗杀人犯被拉出去枪毙啦
180 你怎样才能把你的左手全部放入你身上右边的裤袋内,而同时又把你的右 手全部放入左边的裤袋内? 答案:
把裤子前后反着穿
5只鸡5天生了5个蛋。100天内要100个蛋,需要多少只鸡? 答案:
仍然仅需5只鸡
182 什么东西越剪越大? 答案:
洞
183 网是用什 么做成的? 答案:
用一个个洞做成的。
184 没完成作业怎么办? 答案:
问老师啊,作业是老师留的。。
185 仪式 牧师主持过各种各样的仪式,可是有一种却是他无法主持的。请问是什 么? 答案:
自己的葬礼。
186 考试 在一次监察严密的考试中,有两个学生交了一模一样的考卷。 主考官发 现后,却并没有认为他们作弊,这是什么原因? 答案:
他们都交的白卷。
187 吃草 草地上画了一个直径十米的圆圈,内有牛一头,圆圈中心插了一根木桩。 牛被一根五米长的绳子栓着,如果不割断绳子,也不解开绳子,那么此牛 能否吃到圈外的草? 答案:
能,因为题中并没说牛被栓在木桩上。
188 你知道为什么鱼只生活在水里,而不生活在陆地上吗? 答案:
陆地上有猫
189 有两个硬币,是五角五分,其中一个不是五角,那是哪两个硬币? 答案:
就是五角和五分,五角当然不是五分啦!
190 你知道稀饭贵还是烧饼贵? 答案:
稀饭。物以稀为贵
191 什么时候是摘苹果的最好时机 答案:
苹果熟了的时候
192 有一个人口袋里有五元钱,掉了五元钱口袋里还剩下什么东西? 答案:
一个洞
193 什么鱼的肚皮是浮上水面的? 答案:
死鱼
194 小明今年12岁,为什么只过了三次生日? 答案:
生日是2月29日
195为什么人要拿头撞豆腐?答案:
因为豆腐不会撞头
196 小明每天都吃一个师傅,他是怪兽吗? 答案:
吃康师傅嘛!
197 小王刷了一早上的口,为什嬷别人还是说他口臭 答案:
因为小王爱骂人,所以别人说他口臭
198 小力把一个鸡蛋扔到2米多处还没碎,为什么????? 答案:
因为鸡蛋被扔到2米多处的时候还没落地。
199 两个人去陆菅,晚上睡在帐篷里。不久其中一个人醒来叫醒另一 人。问你看到天上的星星。你会想到什么? 答案:
账蓬被人偷走了。
200 一根长棍子(不准弄断),那怎样才能使它变短? 答案:
拿一根更长的棍子和它一比不就短了吗.
201 为什么先看见打闪后听见打雷。 答案:
因为眼睛长在前面
202 什么路人们最不敢走? 答案:
绝路
203 什么人敢在皇帝的头上胡作非为? 答案:
理发师
204 什么官,不发工资,却要给别人钱,还要陪笑脸? 答案:
新郎官
205 一个挖好的长6米、宽7米、高8米的坑里有多少土? 答案:
已经挖好,所以没有土!
206 在中国,哪个村庄最大? 答案:
石家庄
207 马在哪里不需腿也能走? 答案:
象棋盘上
208 美国总统是怎么进皇宫的? 答案:
从大门进去的
209 一个数去掉首位是13,去掉末位是40.请问这个数是几? 答案:
四十三
210 我们都知道把一只大象放进冰箱里分三步:1把冰箱门打开;2把大象放进 去;3把冰箱门关上。 那么,请你把长颈鹿放进冰箱里分几步? 答案:
四步:1把冰箱门打开;2把大象拿出来;3把长颈鹿放进去;4把冰箱门关上。
211有一天老张去集市买小鸡,转了半天买了10只公鸡10只母鸡,回家的路上,不知道想了什么 赶紧有跑到集市上买了5只公鸡5只母鸡为什么? 答案:
喂小米啊
212 什么样的钉子最可怕? 答案:
眼中钉。
213 杰克跑的最快,为什么他的长官还要批评他. 答案:
逃跑
214 穷人和富人在什么地方没有区别? 答案:
浴室
215 小芬对小芳说:“后天的大前天的后天,也就是昨天的昨天的大后天 是我的生日,请来参加我的生日会。”小芳应该什么时候赴约呢? 答案:
是明天赴约。
216 一个人,他感觉地球在站动,为什么? 答案:
他喝醉酒了。
217 从前有三个人,一个是罗锅,一个是摇头,一个是瘸腿,有一天,他们三 个过一座桥,这个不让罗锅.摇头.瘸腿,这三个人的病不许过,你帮他们想 个办法让他们过去。 答案:
罗锅先放一个蛐蛐,然后罗锅说蛐蛐,摇头就在那要头说:“哪呢?哪呢?”最后,瘸腿说:“这呢?这呢?”
218 什么人喜欢天天下雨 答案:
制造雨伞商
219 哪座桥不能开车也不能走人? 答案:
郑板桥
220 有人说'吃鱼可避免患近视眼',为什么? 答案:
你看过猫戴眼镜吗?
221 一双鞋卖16元,一只鞋卖多少钱? 答案:
不卖。
222 哈巴狗去掉尾巴最像什么动物? 睡觉前要做什么事? 答案:
哈巴狗 闭上眼睛
223 小华的爷爷有7个儿子,每一个儿子又各有一个妹妹,请问:小华的 爷爷有多少个儿女? 答案:
8个,女儿是最小的。
224 地上掉了一张5元的和一张50元的钞票,你看见了会捡哪一张? 答案:
两张都捡
225 将军为什么不用出城做战? 答案:
在下象棋。
226 世界上谁的头力气最大? 答案:
火车头
227 什么东西最能让人满足? 答案:
袜子
228 动物园里有一只可爱的熊猫,为什么人们都不敢接进它 答案:
油漆未干
229 青蛙和狗比赛游泳,为什么狗赢了? 答案:
因为它们比赛的是狗刨式游泳。
230 天最顶上是什么? 答案:
是“一”
231 奶牛天天挤奶,它还有奶这是为什么???? 答案:
喂草呗
232 什么狗身上湿淋淋的? 答案:
落水狗。
233 能使竹篮提水不一场空的最好办法是什么? 答案:
提冰唦。
234 两个口是吕,三个口是品,那也四个口、五个口分别是什么字? 答案:
田、吾
235 小明放学回家对妈妈说:“家里有一个地方,我想坐就坐,而你却不能坐”你知道这是什么地方? 答案:
妈妈的膝盖上
236 一个人有一个,全国12亿人只有12个,这东西是? 答案:
12生肖
237 乌龟梦见自己中了一百元大奖,醒来梦想成真,它接下去该怎么办? 答案:
再睡一觉
238 一个商人破产了,有半数朋友不认识他了,为什么? 答案:
因为还有一半朋友不知道他破产了。
239 动物园里大象的鼻子最长,那谁是第二个长的呢? 答案:
小象
240 最坚固的锁,最怕什么? 答案:
钥匙
241什麽东能逛变世界 答案:
风
242 小明的妈妈让小明买蛋里没有小鸡的蛋小明应该买啥蛋。 答案:
鸭蛋
243 一个人有三根头发,为什么把中间那根拔了? 答案:
因为他要“中分”。
244 小刚唱歌很烂,为什么观众却掌声不断? 答案:
观众在拍蚊子。
245 为什么拔一颗牙齿需要十个医生? 答案:
因为拔牙的是头大象。
246 什么枪只能吓跑人,不能打死人? 答案:
比赛用的枪
247 王奶奶只花了一天,就能从广州扫到北京。她是怎样做到的? 答案:
她在火车上扫的。
248 一条狗想穿越撒哈拉沙漠,它备足了干粮和水,但最后还是死在沙漠里, 为什么? 答案:
因为沙漠里没有电线杆(尿憋死的)
249 一只老虎面前有5个山洞,每个山洞都有一只羊,它为什么进了第2个山洞? 答案:
它想进哪个山洞就进哪个山洞.
250 张飞的母亲姓什么? 答案:
姓吴(解:无事生飞)
251 11+2=1?对吗? 答案:
对!11点另2点就是1点啦!
252 烧什么汤最“鲜”? 答案:
“鱼”肉汤和“羊”肉汤。
253 为什么两只公老虎打架,非要拼过你死我活绝不罢休? 答案:
因为没有人敢去劝架。
254 什么路 走不了。 答案:
电路
255 为什么太阳总是比人起得早? 答案:
因为人总是比太阳睡得晚.
256 有一种东西,成熟了会有胡须,这是什么? 答案:
玉米
257 作家写小说,一般最先从哪里开始写起。 答案:
笔尖
258 一天,有两人在马路上走着,一人说:“你看前面有辆车”另一个人却 说:“没车”为什么? 答案:
煤车
259 小明她很聪明,为什么连东南西北也分不清? 答案:
因为她的眼睛被蒙住了。
260 这个东西别人能用,自己也能用,但它属于自己,它是什么??? 答案:
名字
261 什么报只印一份? 答案:
电报
262 天天和人打架的人是谁? 答案:
拳击手.
263 船厂老板最怕什么? 答案:
地球上没水.
264 小明想用钢笔画个圆,问他从那开始? 答案:
钢笔尖
265 你爸爸的姑姑的妹妹的爷爷的哥哥的太太太太太爷爷的孙子和你什么关系?答案:
亲戚关系
266球里面是空气,救生圈里有什么?
人
267手抓长的,脚踩短的,这是在做什么事?
爬梯子
267 林黛玉是怎么死的 答案
摔死的 (天上掉下个林妹妹)
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历史
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回答
历史必修一第一单元宏观知识结构
uio899
回答了这个问题 | 09-08-27
Introduction
Barack Obama (full name: Barack Hussein Obama), 2009 48 years old. In August 1961 was born in Hawaii, he studied at Columbia University in New York and received a law degree from Harvard University. The 56th, 44th U.S. president, but also the first African-American president, has been hailed as a new generation of Kennedy.
[Edit this paragraph] United States President Barack Obama Family
Barack Obama and the campaign slogan 1. Father: Barack Hussein Obama I, English: Barack Hussein Obama, Senior
Obama's Kenyan father Barack Obama
Obama was born in the old western Kenya, a poor small village, once a Fangniu Wa, and later because of a chance to the United States to study, meet with Dunham, gave birth to Obama.
Old Obama's life more complicated. In Kenya, when he married his first wife Keqi Ya, and have two children, son Roy and daughter Uma.
Dunham and Obama to leave the old year-old son to Harvard, after school, and later with another American woman Ruth returned to Africa. Ruth became his third wife, in Kenya, his birth to two sons, one son died in a car accident.
2. Mother: An Dunham
Dunham was born in Wichita, Kansas, and later moved to Hawaii with his parents.
In Hawaii, Dunham with the Kenyan student Barack Obama (old Obama) met and married, gave birth to a son, named Barry, that is, today Senator Obama.
This is a marriage did not last long, as the old Obama left home to Harvard University studies ended. Dunham later with the Indonesian students Luo Russell Toro married and came to Indonesia in 1967, but also the 6-year-old Barry brought to Indonesia.
Dunham died of ovarian cancer in 1995.
3. U.S. President: Barack Hussein Obama II
4. The United States First Lady: Michelle La Woen Obama, according to the U.S. tradition, her marriage after her husband's name crown.
Five daughters: Maria Anaobama (Malia Ann Obama), Obama, Natasha (Natasha Obama).
6 Pets: Portuguese Water Dog. Name is Bo (BO)
[Edit this section] name
Barack Obama (Obama) is a surname, not a person's full name. Taiwan's translation is: Barack Obama. Obama called the world's people have a lot. The name in African countries, Kenya's Luo tribe are common, the tribe is one of Kenya's three main ethnic. They say the Dhoulou language.
[Edit this paragraph] Obama's political parties
U.S. Democratic Party (Democratic Party) is one of the two major U.S. political parties, was founded in 1791, then known as the Republican Party in 1794 was renamed the Democratic Republican Party, also known as the Anti-Federalist Party, after the party split. Jackson sent in 1828 to establish the Democratic Party. In 1840, the party held its 3rd National Congress, officially named the Democratic Party, for the first time adopted a party platform.
It is worth mentioning that the U.S. Democratic Party, there is no fixed party members, the Liberal Party. The total number of party members to vote according to party presidential candidate, the results of the calculation. The United States as the emblem of the Democratic Party of donkey, so the party and the Republican elephant logo of the competition is called "the partisan struggle." The Democratic Party's color is blue, the party's donkey symbol.
[Edit this section] United States President Barack Obama's inauguration speech (Chinese version)
Members compatriots:
Today I stand here, for the immediate heavy responsibility feels humility, grateful for the trust you, keep in mind the sacrifices of the sages. I want to thank President Bush for this country's services, but also for his generosity during the transfer of sovereignty and cooperation.
44 Americans, published a presidential oath of office, which oath or in the prosperous and peaceful quiet of the occasion, or in thick black clouds, when the volatile political situation. In a difficult time, the United States can Jiqiu succession, not only because high-ranking persons have the ability or vision, but also because people continue to have confidence in the vision of their ancestors, but also loyal to the creation of China's legal system.
Therefore, the United States in order to inherit down. Therefore, this generation of Americans must also be inherited down.
The White House web site official propaganda Now we all know we are the core of exposure to the crisis, China is working with four combat the spread of violence and hatred. Our economy's vitality - This is some of the consequences of greed and irresponsible, but also the public not to make tough choices, the country entered a new era of inadequate preparation. Many people have lost homes, lost their jobs, business depression. Our health care is too expensive, school education disappointing. Every day more evidence to suggest that the way we use energy resources to strengthen our enemy, threatening our planet.
These are derived from data and statistics of the crisis indicators. Comparison can not be measured but equally profound is the loss of confidence of the whole country - continued to worry that the United States will inevitably decline, but also fear that the next generation will become a low vision.
Today I want to tell you that the challenges we face is true, some very tough challenges, and a minority. They are not easily or quickly resolved. However, the U.S. must understand that these challenges will be resolved.
On this day, we are together because we choose hope instead of fear, rather than a meaningful unity disputes and irregularities.
On this day, we come to declare that those who complain about useless and hypocritical commitment to have an end, those who distort our politics has long been mutual accusations and the end of the old dogma.
We are still a young country, but to borrow the words of the Bible, get rid of childish things, time has come to reiterate our moment of arrival of perseverance, and choose our better history and practice of that precious right to pass from generation to generation, the kind of noble idea: that God has promised that each of us is equal, everyone is free, everyone should have the opportunity to pursue entirely well-being.
Reaffirmed our country great, we understand the great gift not come, we must strive to achieve. Our journey is never cut corners or very easy to meet. This road has not been a brave man to not go, those who prefer Yile than work, or just the pursuit of fame and fortune to meet people. On the contrary, take the甲乙双方经过友好协商,本着互惠互利、优势互补的合作原则,就甲方迁入乙方工业园区事宜达成如下协议,甲乙双方共同遵守。
1、 甲方责任:
1) 甲方将在海淀区中关村科技园区注册的高新技术公司,在土地和厂房条件具备后一个月内迁入并注册在乙方管辖的杨镇工业开发区。
2) 甲方将其承担的国家“863”高新技术研究发展计划项目、国家“十五”科技攻关计划项目、国家重点新产品计划项目和国家火炬计划项目等项目的科技成果,在乙方工业园区进行产业化。
3) 甲方有义务引进其它的“863”项目公司落户乙方工业园区,并配合乙方向上级主管部门报批高新技术园区等有关事项。
4) 甲方落户乙方园区之后,合法经营,尽快让科技成果产业化,为促进当地经济的发展作出贡献。
5) 甲方招聘企业员工时,在同等条件下,优先考虑本地人员。
2、 乙方责任:
1) 乙方负责提供甲方迁入乙方工业园区工商注册登记需要的土地及房屋证明文件。
2) 乙方负责提供甲方的项目产业化所需要的土地和厂房,并保证属于北京市规划局批准的工业用地。
3) 甲方落户乙方园区之后三个月内,乙方协助为甲方获得(前期)不少于200万元的流动资金贷款。
4) 甲方落户乙方园区之后,乙方负责落实并保证甲方享受在中关村科技园区的高新技术企业的有关政策,包括但不限于:税收、人才引进等等;同时享受地方政府对引进的高新技术企业上缴的增值税返还政策(即:增值税地方政府留成部分50%返还给企业)。
5) 在甲方落户乙方工业园区之后,乙方应按照当地政府的投资政策,相继解决甲方总经理、副总经理(或相当于副总经理)级别的高级管理人员和具有大学本科以上学历(含本科学历)的科技人才的北京市户籍。
3、 甲乙双方约定:
1) 乙方交付甲方使用的土地:不少于12亩,人民币9万元/亩,50年使用权;厂房:1500M2,轻钢结构,600元/M2。上述厂房由乙方投资修建,土地与厂房作价合计人民币200万元左右。
2) 乙方以上述土地和厂房(约200万元)入股参与甲方的股份制改造,占甲方公司12%的股份,享有公司法规定的股东权益,并委派一名代表参加甲方公司董事会,但不参与公司日常经营管理;同时,乙方将12亩土地50年的使用权和1500M2厂房的产权转入甲方公司名下,并协助甲方办理国有土地使用证,土地出让金以及办理国有土地使用证的手续费由公司承担。5年后,乙方同意,甲方有权随时将乙方的股份按原价回购。
3) 乙方承诺在签订本协议三个月内将甲方需要的1500M2厂房建成,并交付甲方使用。
4) 乙方交付甲方使用的土地,必须做到六通(即:路、电、水、通讯、蒸汽、排污)一平;上述六通一平的费用属于12亩土地面积以外的投资由乙方负责,12亩土地面积以内的投资除了厂房、道路、围墙和岗亭外由甲方负责。
4、 违约责任:
1)本协议除了法定原因外非经双方协商一致不得单方解除。
2)任何一方违反本协议的约定,应承担违约责任。
3)承担违约责任的范围应包括守约方的直接损失和履约应得的合同收益。
5、不可抗力
1)本协议的履行因发生地震、水灾、非人为因素引起的火灾、战争、社会动乱、流行瘟疫等不可抗力事件,可以中止;如果协议的继续履行已不可能或不再必要,可以协商终止。
2)因不可抗力事件而形成的违约,双方均不承担违约责任,但应以公平的原则协商解决协议中止或终止后的遗留问题。
6、争议的解决
双方因本协议的履行、解释而发生争议,如协商解决不能,提请北京仲裁委员会并依据其仲裁规则仲裁解决。
7、合作期限、解除和终止
1)本协议有效期与上述土地使用年限等长。
2)本协议经协商一致,可以提前解除。
8、其他
1)本协议书经双方签字、盖章生效。
2)本协议书(包括协议书附件)经协商可进行书面修改或补充,经修改或补充的书面补充协议为本协议书不可分割之部分,与本协议书具有同等法律效力。
3)本协议书的附件为本协议书的组成部分,与本协议书具有同等法律效力。
4)本协议书一式四份,甲、乙方各持二份。
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石碶镇的发展历史
uio899
回答了这个问题 | 09-08-27
Closely follows the coastal open city - Ningbo City, Haishu District, Ningbo, known as "the first town south gate," said the town a total area of 34 square kilometers, the resident population of four thousand people, has jurisdiction over 20 administrative villages, 3 fisheries Club, 3 residents will be.
Six investment advantages:
The unique location advantage. To begin with, Ningbo City connected to the town center and the city, only 3 kilometers, but also the development and construction in the central area of Yinzhou an integral part of Societe Generale in this city can be fully shared the overall economic advantages; Secondly, in the Fenghua River, therefore the development of industry resort; In addition, with turnover of more than 5 billion yuan in Ningbo big market - Textile Town and Country Mall 10000, which is prosperous cities and towns, service enterprises have an important role.
Advantages of convenient transportation. 2 Ningbo International Airport, Shanghai, Hangzhou and Ningbo Expressway entrance is located in the town of the territory, 34 provincial highway, private road and Yinzhou Ningbo Airport Road (Outer Ring Road, Ningbo city) wore town, and the intersection in the center of town, away from the seasonal ice-free deep-water harbor - Beilun Port is only 3O-minute drive from the Ningbo Railway Station 5 minutes by car.
Strong strength advantage. The town is the city of Ningbo Yinzhou industrial city, but also Chinese clothing town, with Youngor Group, Lodz Group, Zhejiang extensive stationery company, Futian Group, a batch of strong enterprises and stone gangue Village, Tangxi Village, Ya Tomura 3 Ningbo City "twenty strong village." Youngor Group is a listed company, its "suit, shirt" is a national brand name products, the construction of its new international garment production and process equipment, the city is the world's advanced level, has been achieved by the product management to capital management across the same time, the town has been the construction of various types of standard factory 20000 square, the available tax With the purchase, to high-tech-based, integrated industrial district will soon start building. Therefore, the cooperation in more fields, the economic strength of support is guaranteed.
A comprehensive benefits package. Domestic water, electricity, communications sufficient, a 35000-volt transformer substation, water direct supply by the Ningbo city, with a 10000 sub-program-controlled exchange, finance and insurance industry developed, there are already four banks set up branches in the town, there are three insurance companies, hospitals, schools, hotels, etc. should be a complete, plus various related enterprises sector, service comprehensive, simplified, work efficiently. Therefore, in this invest can be avoided in many worries, conscientious business. 紧依沿海开放城市--宁波市海曙区,素有宁波“南门第一镇”之称,全镇总面积34平方公里,常住人口4万余人,下辖20个行政村,3个渔业社,3个居民会。
六大投资优势:
独特的区位优势。首先与宁波市城区相连,镇中心与市中心仅 3公里,又是开发建设中的鄞州中心区的组成部分,在此兴业可充分共享城区的综合经济优势;其次,处于奉化江畔,因而是发展工业的胜地;此外,拥有成交额50亿元以上的宁波大市场--轻纺城和万国商城,这对繁荣城镇,服务企业具有重要作用。
便捷的交通优势。宁波国际二级机场,沪、杭、甬高速公路入口座落于镇境内,34省道、宁波机场专用公路和鄞州大道(宁波市区外环线)都穿镇而过,并交汇于镇中心,距四季不冻的深水良港--北仑港码头仅3O分钟车程,离宁波火车站5分钟车程。
雄厚的实力优势。本镇既是宁波市、鄞州工业重镇,又是中国服装名镇,拥有雅戈尔集团、洛兹集团、浙江广博文具公司、富田集团等一批强势企业和石矸村、塘西村、雅渡村三个宁波市“廿强村”.雅戈尔集团公司是一家上市企业,它的“西服、衬衫”是全国名牌产品,其新建造的国际服装城的生产能力和工艺设备处于世界先进水平,已实现由产品经营向资本经营跨越,同时,本镇己建造各类标准厂房 2万平方来,可供税凭、购买,以高新技术为主的综合工业小区即将动工兴建。因此,合作领域广阔,经济实力支撑有保障。
综合的配套优势。境内水、电、通讯充足,有3.5万伏变电站一座,自来水由宁波市区直供,拥有万门程控交换分局一个,金融、保险业发达,目前已有四家银行在镇设立分支机构,有 3家保险公司,医院、学校、宾馆等一应齐全,再加上各涉企部门,服务周全、手续简便、工作高效。因此,在此投资兴办,可省去许多后顾之忧,尽心创业。
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为什么阿拉伯语要在清真寺里学习呢?
uio899
回答了这个问题 | 09-08-27
Why talk about Arabic
One day come to the mosque, Imam to lead worship. Suddenly I had a question: "Why do we talk about Arabic?" We all know that Shahada is best to read in Arabic, imams to lead us to say prayer is that we simply did not understand Arabic, mosque paintings everywhere are in Arabic, many articles about Islam in Arabic words are entered by the college to teach as if a lot of people are learning Arabic. All of these, it seems that the Arabic-speaking Muslims. Arabic is one of the world's six languages, and then of course the Arab Empire, do not know the reasons for further consideration of faith? But, why? Some Catholics would say, "the Koran" is a show down of Arabic background, but God for each one a classic show down of democracy is bound to have the Chinese language only lost classic. That is to say one language is equal. There is of Rui Allah, and all the visits. Each of our hearts a little thought, he would know and do not care what language to express our one. Why bother to learn Arabic do? So that the Muslims speak Arabic have to show for the capital, is different from other Muslims?
And speak in our native language that makes us not waste time to learn to use a kind that we can not fully express their own ideas of language, not better?为什么要讲阿拉伯语
某日去清真寺,阿訇带领做礼拜。突然我有产生了个问题:“我们为什么要讲阿拉伯语?”大家都知道清真言最好是用阿拉伯语去念,阿訇带领我们去礼拜讲的是我们根本听不懂的阿拉伯语,清真寺里到处画的都是阿拉伯语,关于伊斯兰的文章很多的词都是阿拉伯语,进入经教学院好象很多人都在学习阿拉伯语。凡此种种,好像是穆斯林就的讲阿语。阿拉伯语是世界六大语言之一,与当年阿拉伯帝国固然有关,不知道是不是还的考虑信仰的原因?可是,为什么?有的教友会说《古兰经》是一阿拉伯语为背景降示的,可是真主为每一个民主都降示了经典,必然也有汉语的经典只不过是流失了。那就是说语言之间是平等的。还有安拉是至睿的,全察的。我们内心的每一个小小的想法他都会知道而不在乎我们一什么语言来表达。何苦去学习阿拉伯语呢?让会讲阿拉伯的穆斯林有了可以炫耀的资本,区别于别的穆斯林?
而且讲我们本民族的语言会使我们不用浪费时间去学习一种我们使用起来不能完全表达自己思想的语言,不是更好?
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二战后芬兰要回1939年被苏联占领的领土了吗
uio899
回答了这个问题 | 09-08-27
November 30, 1939, the European war flames are thick, strong Soviet Union launched the
Finland, the war against the Soviet Union was a well-known war, the weak against the strong. After the October Revolution, the Soviet Union after years of socialist construction, economic, and military have achieved very significant results. Geng Shibi was a powerful military force among the best in France and Germany. November 30, 1939, the Soviet Army to 20 divisions (45 million), more than 2000 tanks and 1000 combat aircraft from the four directions of the Finnish offensive was launched across the board. Attempt to 3 days of "liberation" of Finland, and the night in Finland established a puppet *.
At that time, the Finnish national population of only 3.7 million people, only 3.3 million people in total defense. Finnish Army equipment, they can only remain at the level of the First World War. Finland, a very small territory, there is no strategic space. The Soviet Union is proud to think that Finland will be high as the other Baltic countries, vulnerable, obediently to pledge allegiance to the Soviet Union a powerful infancy. However, the Finnish troops in the balance of forces is very adverse circumstances, by virtue of 1927-1939 in the Karelian Isthmus built "Mannerheim line" of the strong fortifications, the use of cold and swamp forests, a favorable position to fight back war , positional warfare, and expendable to surround and annihilate war, except in the Arctic Ocean so Soviet Moldova and Sara Bei Cai rapid progress in the region outside, in the Karelian Isthmus and Ladoga Lake area suffered heavy casualties, the main positions of the Finnish Army did not Jiugong grams. Coupled with the Soviet Union in the "big cleansing campaign", most of the military leaders were persecuted, "lucky" generals were also alive, has no intention of directing the war. Ruthless cold weather makes the Soviet Army suffered huge losses. According to the CPSU Central Committee General Secretary Nikita Khrushchev's memoirs reveal, the Soviet war losses actually Sufen millions of people.
Flagrant invasion of the Soviet Union, Finland
Was then assumed that military power comparable with the German socialist Soviet Union, taking advantage of Poland in September 1939 demise of the machine, for their own safety requirements, Finland ceded territory, Finland *, of course does not accept Soviet Union's unreasonable demands. Unilaterally tore up the results of the Soviet Union in 1932, concluded, "Su Fen Non-Aggression Pact", was November 30, 1939, Finland launched a war of aggression against the weak. It is the victory of Russian Revolution in 1917, so that from the Tsarist Russian occupation of Finland gained its independence; 22 years later, however, it is also built up the Soviet Union launched the October Revolution of Finland, an unjust war of aggression.
Snow sniper for the Soviet despair
In this war, the weak against the strong, Finland has a very Zhuo sniper with the victories. Crack shot sniper who is the pursuit of harmony. According to statistics, the average World War II, killing one soldier for every need 25000 rounds of ammunition. The Vietnam War, killing an average soldier would be 20 million rounds of ammunition, a sniper in the same period, however, has issued an average of only 1.3. This is what a disparity in the number of comparison!
Finnish sniper in the most severely when the number of SimoHayha. SimoHayha Finland is the world's highest kill record holder in 505 times. To SimoHayha sniper formed, headed by Finnish ski troops, most of them are professional hunters, for the mountains are very familiar with the geographical environment, dressed in white with the snow white camouflage uniforms, sliding the sled in the snow wilderness road closures to to go smoothly. In a white environment, wearing tan uniforms were simple-minded, hard trek in the snow in the Soviet Red Army soldiers are the most obvious objective.
SimoHayha led to the use of ski troops from Russia, although the period of the standing of the Mosin-Nagant rifles, was able to Soviet Strike at 700 meters, in the Soviet soldiers caused great fear, calling them "White Death" .
Even lying in the snow, the Soviet Army is also subject to rapid and accurate sniper fire. As long as one stuck his head on the ground, not take 30 seconds, it will probably never left the war-torn dead. Some coward soldiers did not dare rise, lying on the ground, they simply head down fire, the results have been hit on the bottom right to wear a hole. As SimoHayha in Su Fen's outstanding contribution to the war, he was the Finnish people respectfully referred to as "national heroes."
May be due to the "white death," the fear is too strong, Finnish sniper shooting in the snowy night, bonfire next to the hunger and exhaustion in the Soviet soldiers, they are because of extreme despair and even killed on the side arms of the sudden turned a blind eye, waiting with their own That one bullet.
The SimoHayha 505 times bowled, a number of the deceased's last appearance is very quiet, but who know that this seemingly quiet exterior, inside is comfortably in the end, or despair?
Finnish armistice talks to cede the land
The war lasted until the following year in March, Su Fen heavy price of war to the Soviet Union had to face reality and re-negotiated peace treaty with Finland. Finland * Also due to make peace, whether from exhaustion only to accept the conditions of the Soviet Union. March 13, 1940, the two countries signed a peace agreement in Moscow, Finland, its south-east, including Finland's third largest city Vyborg Karelia, including the isthmus, Sara most of the region and the Gulf of Finland island was ceded to the Soviet Union, and to lease Hanko Hong Kong Su-30 years. Although Finland was ceded by 1 / 10 of the territory, but by avoiding the war, together with other Baltic States were incorporated into the fate of the Soviet Union, although the Soviet Union finally make some compromises, but the basic guarantee of national sovereignty and national independence. Since the whole war was carried out in the winter cold, the historian is also known as "winter war."
Finnish Olympic Games did not go ahead
Held in Athens this year is the 28th Olympic Games, Olympic history, but in fact really only held 24 sessions. From the 1936 Berlin Olympics to the 1948 London Olympics, due to the impact of World War II, the Olympic Games was interrupted for 12 years.1939年11月30日,欧洲大战烽火正浓,强大的苏联发动了
芬兰对苏联的战争是一次很有名的以弱对强的战争。十月革命以后,苏联经过多年的社会主义建设,经济、军事上都取得了非常显着的成效。军事力量更是比当时强大的法西斯德国有过之而无不及。1939年11月30日,苏军以20个师(45万人)、2000辆战车和1000馀架作战飞机从四个方向对芬兰发起全线进攻。企图在3天内“解放”芬兰,并且当晚就在芬兰建立起了傀儡*。
而当时芬兰全国人口只有370万人,国防军总数只有3.3万人。芬兰陆军的装备,也只停留在一次大战的水准上。芬兰国土狭小,根本没有战略空间。苏联高层骄傲地认为芬兰会像其他波罗的海国家一样不堪一击,乖乖地归顺于苏联强大的襁褓之中。然而,芬军在力量对比非常不利的情况下,凭藉1927—1939年在卡累利阿地峡修建的“曼纳海姆防线”的坚固工事,利用严寒和沼泽森林的有利地形,展开反击战、阵地战和消耗性围歼战,因此苏军除在北冰洋的贝柴摩和萨拉地区进展较快外,在卡累利阿地峡和拉多加湖一带伤亡惨重,对芬军主阵地久攻不克。加上苏联在“大清洗运动”中,大部分军事将领都遭到迫害,“幸运”活着的将领们也根本无心指挥战争。残酷无情的严寒气候则使苏军损失惨重。根据苏共中央总书记赫鲁晓夫的回忆录透露,苏军实际在苏芬战争中损失上百万人。
苏联悍然入侵芬兰
当时被认为军事实力跟德国不相上下的社会主义苏联,趁1939年9月波兰败亡之机,为了自身安全要求芬兰割让领地,芬兰*当然不会接受苏联的无理要求。结果苏联单方面撕毁1932年缔结的《苏芬互不侵犯条约》,于1939年11月30日发动了侵略弱小芬兰的战争。正是1917年俄国十月革命的胜利,使芬兰脱离沙皇俄国的佔领获得独立;然而22年后,却也是十月革命建立起的苏联发动了侵略芬兰的非正义战争。
雪地狙击手让苏军绝望
在这场以弱抗强的战争中,芬兰狙击手有着非常卓着的战果。百发百中是狙击手们追求的境界。据统计,二战时平均每杀死一名士兵需要2.5万发子弹。越战时平均每杀死一名士兵需20万发子弹,然而同时期的一名狙击手却平均只需1.3发。这是一个多麽悬殊的数字对比!
芬兰狙击手中最厉害的当数SimoHayha。SimoHayha是芬兰也是世界最高猎杀记录505次的保持者。以SimoHayha为首的芬兰狙击手组成了滑雪部队,他们大多是专业猎人,对于山林的地理环境非常熟悉,身穿跟雪一样白的白色伪装服,滑着雪橇在大雪封路的荒郊野外来去自如。在一片雪白的环境下,穿着笨笨的棕褐色制服、在雪地中辛苦跋涉的苏联红军士兵则是最明显不过的目标了。
以SimoHayha为首的滑雪部队使用的虽然是从帝俄时期沿用下来的Mosin-Nagant步枪,却能在700米外狙杀苏军,在苏军士兵中造成极大的恐惧,称他们为“白色死神”。
即使趴在雪地上,苏军也逃不过狙击手迅速而准确的射击。只要脑袋一探出地面,用不了30秒,就可能永远离开那战火纷飞的人世。有的胆小鬼士兵不敢抬头,趴在地面上,只顾低着头扫射,结果屁股上就被打出个对穿的窟窿。由于SimoHayha在苏芬战争中的突出贡献,他被芬兰人民尊敬地称为“民族英雄”。
也许是由于对“白色死神”的恐惧过于强烈,芬兰狙击手在雪夜中射击篝火旁饥饿疲惫的苏军士兵时,他们由于极度绝望,竟然对身边猝然毙命的战友视若无睹,静候着属于自己的那一颗子弹。
在SimoHayha的505次击杀中,许多死者的最后容貌非常沉静,但谁知道这看似沉静的外表下,内心到底是从容还是绝望呢?
停战谈判芬兰割让土地
战争一直延续到次年3月,苏芬战争的惨重代价使苏联不得不正视现实,重新与芬兰谈判和约。芬兰*也因弹尽粮绝只得接受苏联的讲和条件。1940年3月13日,两国在莫斯科签订了和平协定,芬兰将其东南部包括芬兰第三大城市维堡在内的卡累利阿地峡、萨拉地区和芬兰湾的大部分岛屿割让给苏联,并把汉科港租给苏30年。芬兰虽然割让了1/10的领土,但通过战争避免了与其他波罗的海国家一起被併入苏联的命运,最后虽对苏联作出一些妥协,但基本保证了国家主权和民族独立。由于整个战争是在冬季严寒中进行的,史家又称之为“冬战”。
芬兰奥运会就此夭折
今年在雅典举办的是第28届奥运会,但是实际上奥运会历史上只真正举办过24届。从1936年柏林奥运会到1948年伦敦奥运会,由于二战的影响,奥运会被迫中断了12年。
1940年的奥运会举办地点原本定在日本东京,但由于日本在1937年发动了全面侵华战争,奥会将举办地点改到了芬兰首都赫尔辛基。可没多久,苏芬战争爆发,1940年1月1日芬兰通知国际奥会主动放弃主办权。随后,战火遍及欧洲大陆和世界各地,第十二届奥运会也就在第二次世界大战的战火中流产了。
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日本军队如何战斗力惊人
uio899
回答了这个问题 | 09-08-27
Strength of the Japanese armed forces are more balanced, but the U.S., the Soviet Union there is a clear gap, in addition to equipment factors, the tactical thinking of the old period of fatal injury (which is a common problem at that time the armed forces in Asia), made the Japanese troops in the military confrontation with Europe and the United States clearly feeling behind. 1939 Norman Khan, the most domineering of the Kwantung Army's elite have been playing Xilihuala Zhukov's Soviet tanks, 45 years, the Soviet iron stream is swept across the Northeast; battle in the Pacific islands, directed at the U.S. military machine guns, bayonets, lined up to fight only the Japanese did come out. Even if the better performance of the Navy, the ship is also carrying a large cannon of the stereotypical belief that, although there are Isoroku Yamamoto so much attention, Naval Air Force generals, but in general the Japanese Navy when it comes to aircraft carriers, submarines little to use. The reason why the Japanese rankings for this is because of their warlike spirit inspired by fighting, as well as fairly competent armed forces and equipment.日军陆海空三军实力较为均衡,但和美、苏有明显的差距,除了装备因素外,战术思想的陈旧时期致命伤(这也是当时亚洲军队的通病),使得日本军队在与欧美军队对抗时明显感觉落后。1939年诺门汗,最精锐跋扈的关东军被朱可夫的苏联坦克打得稀里哗啦,45年时,苏军铁流更是横扫东北;在太平洋诸岛争夺战中,冲着美军机枪列队拚刺刀也只有日本人干得出来。即使表现较好的海军,也是抱着大舰巨炮的陈腐信念,虽然有山本五十六这样的重视海军航空兵的将领,但总的来说日海军在对于航母、潜艇的使用上乏善可陈。日军之所以排名如此,是因为其武士道精神激发出的战斗力,以及还算合格的三军装备水平。
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朝鲜婚俗由来
uio899
回答了这个问题 | 09-08-27
Koreans now hold marriage in general is "married woman" and "men marry" at the same time, is a form of Chinese and Korean Traditional Wedding Custom Bridal combining a mixture of the ceremony.
To the wedding day, the groom with a "wedding letter" to the bride's house accompanied by the best man to marry. After the groom and his entourage to the bride's family, from mother to accept "marriage letter." Then, the groom in the bride's family, accompanied by male family dependents who accept the "big table." "Big Table" on the addition to a variety of dishes, there are two things are necessary: first, dangling from red chili peppers or red dates whole chicken, and the other is buried, like a bowl of rice 3 eggs. Egg is the groom must eat things, but can only eat two, and the other is left to the bride to eat. "Big Table" on the share of food before every kind of sorting out a number of individual packages it as a gift the groom's parents, his family, let them know that the bride's family in honor of the groom. The groom after dinner, accompanied by the groom to the bride's parents bid farewell to the groom's family. The bride to the groom's family and his party, the separate arrangements in one room, accompanied by the bridesmaid to accept the "big table." "Big Table" on all the food left behind when her family to be back to back. Into the evening, entertainment will be held at the groom's family. The next morning a "bride's gift," the groom and the groom's family Qinjuan were all sitting around, the bride and the distance in accordance with the order of 11 young and old toast, and a gift a gift, a gift usually cloth or clothing. In the second day or third day after marriage, the groom with the bride and her parents returned with such meetings, banquets joy. At this point, all the end of the marriage be considered.
Bride price can be a mutual agreement about! Good families give, to the slightly less bad!
Going to marry the bride's family!
Final blessing a pair of newcomers Early Takako, old age to old age!现在朝鲜族举办婚姻,一般是"女嫁"和"男娶"同时进行的,是一种中国的迎亲形式和朝鲜传统婚俗仪式相结合的混合体。
到了结婚日,新郎带着"婚函"由傧相陪同前往新娘家迎娶。新郎一行到新娘家以后,由岳母接受"婚函"。然后,新郎在新娘家男眷们的陪同下接受"大桌"。"大桌"上除各种佳肴外,有两样东西必备:一是叼着红辣椒或红枣的整鸡,另一样是埋着三个鸡蛋的一碗大米饭。鸡蛋是新郎必吃的事物,但只许吃两个,另一个则留给新娘吃。"大桌"上的食品在大家共享之前,每样都拣出来一些单独包起来送给新郎的父母眷,让他们知道新娘家款待新郎的情况。新郎吃完饭后,新娘告别父母随同新郎前往新郎家。新娘一行到新郎家后,单独安排在一间屋里,在女傧相的陪同下接受"大桌"。"大桌"上的食物要全部留下,待回娘家时带回去。到晚上,新郎家举行娱乐会。第二天早晨进行"新娘献礼",新郎和新郎家的亲眷们各坐一旁,新娘按照长幼和远近的顺序一一敬酒,并馈赠一件礼物,礼物一般为衣料或服装。在婚后的第二天或第三天,新郎跟新娘一起返回娘家省亲,饮宴欢乐。至此,婚事才算全部结束。
彩礼双方协商一下就可以了!家境好的多给,不好的少给咯!
要去新娘家迎娶的!
最后祝福一对新人,早生贵子,白头到老!
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谁有手抄报:主题“颂国庆六十周年、展时代新风尚”,小学生用?
uio899
回答了这个问题 | 09-08-26
"National Day" the term refers to the national celebration of this matter, the earliest found in Western Jin Dynasty. Western Jin Dynasty writer Lu in the "five other princes theory," a paper once a "National Day alone Aba its advantages, the main worry about Mo and its victims," the record, China's feudal era, the national celebration event, a great over-the emperor ascended the throne, the birth of (Qing Dynasty Emperor's birthday called for the Viva section) and so on. Thus in ancient China the emperor ascended the throne, the birth referred to as "National Day." Said today that the countries of the Day as a National Day.
September 1949 meeting of the CPPCC session decided to October 1 as National Day. In the October 1, 1949 announced the establishment of The People's Republic of China, which is China's history, one of the greatest transformation. At 15 o'clock on the October 1, 1949, 300,000 people in Tiananmen Square in Beijing held a grand ceremony to celebrate the establishment of the PRC Central People's Government. Zhuang Yan, Chairman Mao Zedong proclaimed the People's Republic, the Central People's Government set up and personally raised the first five-star red flag. Chairman Mao announced the "The People's Republic of China Central People's Government Notice": "The People's Republic of China on behalf of the Central People's Government to the sole legitimate government of the National People's Republic of China. Remit the respect of equality, mutual benefit and mutual respect for the principle of territorial integrity and sovereignty of any foreign Administration, this government is willing to establish diplomatic relations. "immediately held a military parade and mass demonstrations. Zhu De, commander inspected the land and air forces, and announced, "People's Liberation Army headquarters in order" and ordered the PLA quickly wipe out all vestiges of the Kuomintang armed forces, the liberation of the liberation of all outstanding land. On the same day, Beijing Xinhua radio founding ceremony in Tiananmen Square for live broadcast of The People's Republic of China. This is the first time in the history of the Chinese People's Broadcasting large-scale live broadcasts throughout the country People's Radio broadcasting.
National Day Poetry 1: guoqingjieshige
Patio Spring Day
Clear blue skies, magnificent mountains and rivers, red flag flying.
Look at Kyushu radius, to celebrate; rivers singing, everywhere Liufang.
Social stability, people's happiness, spectrum reform and opening up new chapters.
New China, such as the World Dragons, stands the East.
At the present so magnificent, that depends on the direction of the party and government policy.
Yi eventful years, and livelihoods ruined; Lebanon's more difficult, long Yemang Mang.
Hail of bullets, go through fire and, in exchange for new red sun.
When the treasure, and keep alive rivers and mountains of red, Forever and Ever.
The National Day of Poetry II:
Motherland, ah, and I'm proud of you!
When the majestic Chinese table,
So tall and straight body covered with the dawn of
When the magnificent Tiananmen Square,
Let FY usher in Dongsheng sun.
History of ear,
Came the rumbling echo of the Salute,
That avalanche-like response,
Vast changes in China's response.
A giant looking down on the world,
Resonant voice,
The whole world to hear, and
The People's Republic of China was set up!
When the first five-star red flag rises in
That victory banner,
Lang Lang fluttering in the wind in the air,
People up some of the skull,
The whole world can see,
The Chinese people have stood up!“国庆”一词,本指国家喜庆之事,最早见于西晋。西晋的文学家陆机在《五等诸侯论》一文中就曾有“国庆独飨其利,主忧莫与其害”的记载、我国封建时代、国家喜庆的大事,莫大过于帝王的登基、诞辰(清朝称皇帝的生日为万岁节)等。因而我国古代把皇帝即位、诞辰称为“国庆”。今天称国家建立的纪念日为国庆。
1949 年9月的政协一届一次会议上决定把10月1日定为国庆节。在1949年10月1日宣告中华人民共和国成立,这是中国历史上一个最伟大的转变。 1949年十月一日下午3时,北京30万人在天安门广场隆重举行典礼,庆祝中华人民共和国中央人民政府成立。毛泽东主席庄的严宣告中华人民共和国、中央人民政府成立,并亲自升起了第一面五星红旗。毛主席宣读了《中华人民共和国中央人民政府公告》:“中华人民共和国中央人民政府为代表中华人民共和国全国人民唯一合法政府。凡愿遵守平等、互利及互相尊重领土主权等项原则的任何外国政府,本政府均愿与之建立外交关系。”随即举行阅兵式和群众游行。朱德总司令检阅了海陆空军,并宣布《中国人民解放军总部命令》,命令中国人民解放军迅速肃清国民党一切残余武装,解放一切尚未解放的国土。同日,北京新华广播电台在天安门广场进行中华人民共和国开国大典实况广播。这是中国人民广播史上第一次大规模的实况广播,全国各地人民广播电台同时广播。
国庆节诗歌一: guoqingjieshige
沁园春 国庆
万里晴空,壮丽山河,赤旗飘扬。
看九州方圆,普天同庆;江河歌唱,遍地流芳。
社会稳定,人民幸福,改革开放谱新章。
新中国,如世界巨龙,屹立东方。
今朝如此辉煌,赖党政国策指方向。
忆峥嵘岁月,生灵涂炭;黎民多难,长夜茫茫。
枪林弹雨,出生入死,换得新生红太阳。
当珍惜,永葆河山赤,地久天长。
有关国庆节的诗歌二:
祖国啊,我为你自豪!
当巍峨的华表,
让挺拔的身躯披上曙光,
当雄伟的天安门,
让风云迎来东升的太阳.
历史的耳畔,
传来了礼炮的隆隆回响,
那排山倒海般的回响,
是中国沧桑巨变的回响.
一位巨人俯瞰着世界,
洪亮的声音,
全世界都听到了,
中华人民共和国成立了!
当第一面五星红旗冉冉升起,
那胜利的旗帜,
在朗朗的空中迎风飘扬,
人民扬起了头颅,
全世界都看到了,
中国人民从此站起来了!
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惠泉国际历史
uio899
回答了这个问题 | 09-08-26
Huiquan beer brand Description
Fujian Yanjing Huiquan Brewery Co., Ltd. is one of China's top ten beer is beer, the only listed company in Fujian Province. Company has four production bases of beer (վ ÄÚËÑË South Plant, North Plant, Fuding, Jiangxi Fuzhou), the total annual production scale of the design capacity of 80 million tons of production capacity is 550,000 tons of beer, the total assets of nearly 1.5 billion, with first-class beer production equipment and strong technological strength. Various economic and technical indicators of the company for many years ranks highest in the beer industry in Fujian Province, is the national beer industry, one of the top ten beer.
Huiquan beer originated in 1938, Wang Hui-a capitalist, founded a small workshop manual melon dry wine, after the liberation of transformation for the local state-owned wineries in Hoi An, a 66-year history of wine. In 1983, the company introduced in the province first open-air beer fermentation tank of new technologies, since the rapid development of the curtain of a curtain Huiquan beer. Especially the reform and opening up the past two decades, the company actively practice Comrade Deng Xiaoping's "Development is the last word" ideology, to be pioneers and development, courage, hard work, hard work, has made remarkable achievements and quality, science and technology , mechanism and effectiveness of the first, won the Chinese beer industry attention. The company in 1989 was promoted to national secondary enterprise, the country's beer industry in 1995, the third through GB/T19000-ISO9002 quality system certification, the same year, promoted to the national large-scale enterprises, and as the first batch of pilot units in Fujian Province, began to actively explore the establishment of a modern enterprise system path. Officially launched in February 1997, Fujian's first standardized state's absolute control of joint-stock Beer Group, to become a successful restructuring of local state-owned enterprises a banner had been subjected to the central, provincial ministries and highly appreciated. 2000 Quality and Technical Supervision of China company was awarded the "National Quality Management Advanced Unit" title, the ACFTU was awarded the "May 1st Labor Certificate." February 26, 2003, the company in Shanghai Stock Exchange, shares of public offering of A shares 6300 and officially listed, and a national industry, 6th listed companies. April 28, 2004, Beijing Yanjing Brewery Company Limited to become Huiquan Beer Group Co., the largest shareholder. Yanjing Huiquan strong alliance, will effectively play both advantages, a strong impetus to the rapid development of Huiquan beer, and create a new era in the history of Huiquan beer. Huiquan Brewery leading products are high-quality series and Huiquan Huiquan beer more than 20 varieties of wheat beer, and has won the "China Food Industry Famous Brand", "the national beer industry, quality products", "Fujian Famous Brand", " Fujian Famous Brand "and the title of best-selling products in Fujian, Shanghai, Jiangxi, Guangdong and other provinces and cities and more than 20 Hong Kong, Taiwan, Macau, the Philippines and other Southeast Asia, the market prospect is very broad.
Huiquan Beer-owned subsidiary company's own raw materials, Quanzhou Jin Mai Brewery Co., Ltd., Hui'an County Xinglong Packing Products Co., Ltd., Yanjing Beer Fuding Huiquan Co., Ltd., Yanjing Huiquan beer (Fuzhou) Co., Ltd., shares Quanzhou Pearl Brewery Company Limited and related companies Printing Co., Ltd. Quanzhou, China and Germany, and the system covered Budweiser Co., Ltd., Quanzhou, and gradually form a Huiquan beer as the leading product group "industrial chain."惠泉啤酒品牌介绍
福建省燕京惠泉啤酒股份有限公司是中国十强啤酒企业之一,也是福建省惟一的啤酒上市公司。公司现有四个啤酒生产基地(本埠南厂、北厂,福鼎,江西抚州),总生产规模设计年产能力80万吨,现产能55万吨啤酒,总资产近15亿元,拥有一流的啤酒生产设备和雄厚的科技力量。公司各项经济技术指标连续多年居福建省啤酒行业前茅,是全国啤酒行业十佳啤酒企业之一。
惠泉啤酒公司最早起源于1938年惠安一王氏资本家创办的瓜干酒手工小作坊,解放后改造为地方国营惠安酒厂,具有66年酿酒历史。1983年,公司在全省首家引进啤酒露天大罐发酵新技术,自此拉开了惠泉啤酒快速发展的帷幕。特别是改革开放二十年来,公司积极实践邓小平同志“发展才是硬道理”思想,以敢为人先求发展的胆略,艰苦奋斗,努力拼搏,取得了令人瞩目的成绩,并以质量、科技、机制、效益等之先,赢得中国啤酒界的瞩目。公司于1989年晋升为国家二级企业,1995年在全国啤酒业第三家通过GB/T19000-ISO9002质量体系认证,同年荣升为国家大型企业,并作为福建省首批试点单位,开始积极探索建立现代企业制度之路。1997年2月正式创立福建省第一家国有绝对控股的规范化股份制啤酒集团公司,成为当地国有企业成功改制的一面旗帜,曾受到中央、省部委的高度评价。2000年公司被中国质量技术监督局授予“全国质量管理先进单位”称号,并被中华全国总工会授予“五一劳动奖状”。2003年2月26日,公司在上海证券交易所公开发行A股6300万股,并正式挂牌上市,成为全国行业第六家上市公司。2004年4月28日,北京燕京啤酒股份有限公司成为惠泉啤酒集团股份有限公司第一大股东。燕京惠泉的强强联合,必将有效发挥两者优势,有力推动惠泉啤酒的高速发展,开创惠泉啤酒发展史上的新纪元。 惠泉啤酒公司主导产品有惠泉生啤酒优质系列及惠泉小麦啤酒等20多个品种,先后获“中国食品工业名牌产品”、“全国啤酒行业优质产品”、“福建省名牌产品”、“福建省著名商标”等称号,产品畅销福建、上海、江西、广东等二十多个省市和香港、台湾、澳门、菲律宾等东南亚地区,市场前景十分广阔。
惠泉啤酒公司旗下拥有控股子公司泉州市金麦啤酒原料有限公司、惠安县兴龙包装用品有限公司、燕京惠泉啤酒福鼎有限公司、燕京惠泉啤酒(抚州)有限公司,参股企业泉州市龙珠酿酒有限公司以及关联企业泉州中德印务有限公司和泉州百威制盖有限公司等,逐步形成以惠泉啤酒为龙头产品的集团“产业链”。
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体彩排列五历史号码有没有出过39277
uio899
回答了这个问题 | 09-08-26
Arrange three recent lottery numbers Bulletin No. 2008355
Lottery date :2008-12-27
Current bet amount: 24,338,844 yuan
Duijiang Deadline: 2009-01-26
Winning numbers: 487
Note the number of award winning prize money for each injection
4,689 direct injection 1,000 yuan排列三最新开奖号码公告 第2008355期
开 奖 日 期:2008-12-27
本期投注金额:24,338,844元
兑奖截止日期: 2009-01-26
中奖号码:487
奖项 中奖注数 每注奖金
直选 4,689注 1,000元
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中央集权制度为何衰落
uio899
回答了这个问题 | 09-08-26
Centralized system of despotism
First, the concept of
Centralized system of totalitarian despotism and centralization should be divided into two concepts to understand, at the same time note that the link between the two.
1, despotism: is opposed to the concept of democracy refers to a person or a few people dictatorial form of political organization, reflected in the throne and the throne hereditary system of tenure, the emperor, whose main feature is an autocratic individual, set the country supreme power in one, from the decision-making to the exercise of military and financial power have arbitrary and random.
2, centralization of power: It is relative to the purposes of decentralization, which is characterized by local governments in the political, economic, and military aspects of lack of independence, we must strictly obey the central government's orders, all subject to central government.
3, the link between the two: ① the local and central government must be subordinate to the emperor alone. ② autocratic imperial power to strengthen, the centralization of power is often more effective when the weakened imperial despotism, they often are ineffective when the centralization of power.
Second, the implementation of the reasons for
1 and economic root causes - the need to maintain the feudal economic base. Spring and Autumn period, social productivity gains led to the disintegration of the old relations of production, Qin Shang Yang's Reform established the dominance of the feudal economy, this economy is characterized by self-sufficient economy. The feudal peasant economy of the individual. This economic model needs a strong state power in order to safeguard national unity and social stability to ensure that small-scale peasant production and reproduction, the emerging landlord class also need to establish a centralized system to consolidate its dominant position, maintaining its political, economic interests, to protect their land tenure system. The feudal mode of production determines the establishment of a centralized system.
2, social causes - the consolidation of the need to safeguard national unity. Qin lessons in the weeks and no child under the inability to relive the lessons of the situation in the country after the establishment of a unified centralized system of despotism in order to eliminate the local separatist forces and safeguarding national unity.
3, the ideological roots - laying the theoretical foundation for the Legalist thought. Since the Qin Shang Yang's Reform, it has been the ruling ideology in order to Legalist thought. Summary philosophers 100 Hanfeizi theory, creating a complete set of centralized political theory, for the emperor system, the creation of a centralized despotism lay a theoretical basis.
3, the basic content of
1, the emperor system;
2, the central exercise of the system;
3, the local administrative system, its core is a concentration of all power to the emperor.
IV characteristics
1, imperial supremacy of principles;
2, Pole Star, and the throne hereditary tenure system;
3, from the central to local officials at all levels, all directly from the emperor the appointment and removal;
4, the emperor from the decision-making to the exercise of legislative, judicial, administrative and other dictatorial powers;
5, publicizing the "divine right of kings";
6, ideology and culture of authoritarian rule.
5, the basic contradiction
1, the central government and local separatist forces of contradictions.
2, the right of imperial power and phase conflict (conflict within the central government).
6 The fundamental purpose of
Maintenance of a unified multi-ethnic country's development and stability
7, development and evolution
1, budding (Warring States): Shang Yang to establishing a system Baiguan clothes, from the monarch decrees the establishment of the feudal bureaucratic system.
2, establishing (Qin Dynasty): a set of feudal monarchist centralized political system was established. (To establish the supremacy of the emperor system, imperial power, the central Sangong Jiuqing of the Bureaucracy, the local implementation of prefectures and counties).
3, the consolidation of (Western Han): ① Han Ching-ti "cut-fan" pacification of the seven countries of the chaos. ② Emperor promulgated a "push-en order" deprived of their princely title of nobility to solve the problem of the Kingdom. ③ "sacked 100 nearly exclusive emphasis on Confucianism," strengthen the ideological and authoritarian, the consolidation of a centralized system of despotism.
4, perfect (Sui): ① system of six provinces, three provinces Executive equal to the prime minister, mutual containment and restraint to avoid the prime minister has the exclusive right, but also to some extent contain the absolute monarchy, is a centralized system of despotism further improved. ② imperial examination system, so that the door first is not high, there are talented people to participate in the regime in an effort to expand the basis for the ruling class.
5, strengthened (Song): to take "杯酒释兵权" will place the administrative, military, financial, centralize power to prevent the emergence of local fragmentation has strengthened the centralization of power.
6, development (Yuan Dynasty): the central executive secretariat is located, is the country's highest administrative body, ensuring the implementation of central decree. At the local set up a "province," province to implement the system right after the far-reaching.
7, enhanced (Ming Dynasty): Ming Dynasty emperor at the helm for waste prime minister, after Fangsong Diange] system, the cabinet set up. Waste at the local province, located 3 Division, weakening the local forces, mostly from the cabinet and the Ming Dynasty eunuch power control, we can fully control the affairs of state, only three generations of Chongzhen Hongwu and Yongle by adding these elements
8, peak (clear): Qing Dynasty set up six, after addition of the Grand Council, all political power rests in the hands of the emperor. At the same time Daxing literary inquisition, so that an unprecedented strengthening of monarchical power, forming the extreme monarchy rule and centralized despotism reached its peak.
8, effect
1, an active role:
① multi-ethnic feudal state conducive to the establishment, consolidation and development, and conducive to safeguarding the motherland's unity and territorial integrity.
② can effectively organize human, material and financial resources to engage in large-scale production activities and economic development and conducive to social and economic development.
③ in a unified environment, conducive to the integration of all ethnic groups, which will help the region's economic and cultural exchanges.
2, negative role:
① vulnerable to the formation of imperial tyranny, despotism, corruption and the factors hindering the development of history.
② the performance in terms of ideology as the only use one, which suppresses their thinking.
③ In the feudal society, hindered the emerging capitalist relations of production embryonic development.
9, the Chinese feudal society, the emergence of post-thinking of the negative absolute monarchy
Yuan Ming and Qing Dynasties, with the development of commodity economy, the decline of the feudal system gradually.
Democracy in the early Enlightenment was also a long dark submerged Zi. Song Writing, Deng Mu has boldly denounced the emperor is the largest predators and exploiters, denying the rule of the feudal autocratic monarchy. Deng Mu's Feijun thinking, progressive thinkers of the Ming and Qing dynasties have a certain influence. Ming the late thinker Li Zhi, accusing the Confucian classics are not "Jesus Christ the专制主义中央集权制度
一、概念
专制主义中央集权制度应当分成专制主义与中央集权两个概念来理解,同时又要注意二者之间的联系。
1、专制主义:是与民主政体相对立的概念,指一个人或少数几个人独裁的政权组织形式,体现在帝位终身制和皇位世袭制上,其主要特征是皇帝个人的专断独裁,集国家最高权力于一身,从决策到行使军政财政大权都具有独断性和随意性。
2、中央集权:是相对于地方分权而言的,其特点是地方政府在政治、经济、军事方面没有独立性,必须严格服从中央政府的命令,一切受制于中央。
3、二者之间的联系:①地方和中央都必须服从皇帝一人。②专制主义皇权加强时,往往是中央集权比较有效时,专制主义皇权削弱时,往往也是中央集权不力时。
二、实行原因
1、经济根源——维护封建经济基础的需要。春秋战国时期,社会生产力提高导致旧的生产关系解体,秦国商鞅变法确立了封建经济的统治地位,这种经济的特点便是自给自足的自然经济。是封建的个体的小农经济。这种经济模式需要一个强有力的国家政权,以维护国家的统一和社会的安定,保证小农经济的生产和再生产,新兴的地主阶级也需要建立中央集权制度来巩固其统治地位,维护其政治、经济利益,保护其土地所有制度。这种封建的生产方式决定了中央集权制的建立。
2、社会根源——巩固、维护国家统一的需要。秦吸取周无子在诸侯割据局面下无能力的教训,在统一全国后建立专制主义中央集权制度,以消除地方割据势力,维护国家统一。
3、思想根源——法家思想奠定理论基础。秦自商鞅变法后,一直以法家思想为统治思想。韩非子总结诸子百家学说,创造了一套完整的中央集权的政治理论,为秦始皇创立专制主义中央集权制度奠定理论基础。
三、基本内容
1、皇帝制;
2、中央行使制度;
3、地方行政制度,其核心是集一切权力于皇帝。
四、特点
1、皇权至上原则;
2、帝位终身制和皇位世袭制;
3、从中央到地方的各级官吏一律由皇帝直接任免;
4、皇帝从决策到行使立法、司法、行政等独断权力;
5、宣扬“君权神授”;
6、思想文化的专制统治。
五、基本矛盾
1、中央政府与地方割据势力的矛盾。
2、皇权与相权矛盾(中央政府内部矛盾)。
六、根本目的
维护统一多民族国家的发展与稳定
七、发展演变
1、萌芽(战国):商鞅建立县制,百官服,从君主法令的封建官僚制度建立。
2、确立(秦朝):一整套封建君主专制主义中央集权的政治制度的建立。(确立皇权的至高无上的皇帝制,中央三公九卿的官制,地方推行郡县制)。
3、巩固(西汉):①汉景帝“削藩”平定七国之乱。②汉武帝颁布“推恩令”削夺王侯爵位,解决王国问题。③“罢黜百家,独尊儒术”加强思想专制,巩固了专制主义中央集权制度。
4、完善(隋唐):①三省六部制,三省长官相当于宰相,相互牵制和制约,避免宰相的专权,又一定程度上牵制君主专制,是专制主义中央集权制度的进一步完善。②科举制,使门第不高的有才能的人参加到政权中来,扩大了统治阶级的基础。
5、加强(北宋):采取“杯酒释兵权”将地方的行政、军事、财政权力收归中央,防止了地方割据局面的出现,加强了中央集权。
6、发展(元朝):在中央设中书省,是全国最高行政机构,保证了中央统一政令的实行。在地方设“行省”实行行省制度,对后也影响深远。
7、强化(明朝):明朝皇帝大权独揽,废丞相,后仿宋殿阁]制设内阁。在地方废行省,设三司,削弱地方势力, 明朝权力大都由内阁和宦官控制,真正完全控制朝政的只有洪武永乐和崇祯三代 加入这些内容
8、顶峰(清):清朝设六部,后增设军机处,政治权力全部掌握在皇帝手中。同时大兴文字狱,使君权空前加强,形成极端的君主专制统治,专制主义中央集权制达到顶峰。
八、作用
1、积极作用:
① 利于多民族封建国家的建立、巩固和发展,利于维护祖国统一与领土完整。
② 能有效地组织人力、物力和财力从事大规模的生产活动和经济建设,利于社会经济的发展。
③ 在统一的环境下,利于各民族的融合,利于各地区的经济文化交流。
2、消极作用:
① 皇权专制极易形成暴政、腐败现象,是阻碍历史发展的因素。
② 在思想上表现为独尊一家,箝制了思想。
③ 在封建社会末期,阻碍了新兴的资本主义生产关系萌芽的发展。
九、中国封建社会后期否定君主专制思想的出现
元明清时期,随着商品经济的发展,封建制度渐趋衰落。
早期的民主启蒙思想也在潜滋暗长。宋代的邓牧曾著书大胆斥责皇帝是最大的掠夺者和剥削者,否定封建君主专制统治。邓牧的非君思想,对明清进步思想家有一定影响。明后期,思想家李贽,指责儒家经典并非“万世之至论”,否定孔子是“天生圣人”。他揭露道学的虚伪,反对歧视妇女和压抑商人。李贽是我国反封建的思想先驱。他的思想在一定意义上反映了资本主义萌芽时代的要求,带有民主性的色彩。
对封建君主专制进行最激烈批判的要数明末清初的黄宗羲,他认为君主专制是“天下之大害”,他提倡“法治”反对“人治”,反对重农抑商,提出“工商皆本”的主张。黄宗羲的思想震动了当时的学术界,对晚清民主思潮兴起也有一定的影响。
(注:图为明代的专制主义中央集权的内容)
(1)专制主义中央集权制度的基本特征和演变规律。
专制主义中央集权制度,是我国封建社会的基本政治制度。是指君主掌握国家最高权力,并通过军政官僚机关管理、控制国家的政体。包括皇帝制、官像政治和中央集权等方面,其基本特征是皇权至高无上和不可分割,皇权不可转让,皇位实行世袭,君尊臣卑等。皇权愈来愈尊,臣民愈来愈卑,是古代专制主义中央集权发展的总趋势。
(2)专制主义中央集权制度的发展变化
①战国时期初步形成
战国时期封建经济的发展、新兴地主阶级力量的增长、国家局部统一局面的出现,为中央集权制度的形成创造了社会条件。为适应新兴地主加强专政和保护封建经济发展的需要,初步确立起君主集权的政治体制。这为秦建立专制主义中央集权制度提供了成功的经验。法家的重要代表人物韩非子提出的中央集权和以法治国的思想,形成了一套系统的中央集权理论。
②秦朝正式建立
秦始皇统一中国后,继承了商鞅变法的成果并实践了韩非子的理论,创立专制主义中央集权的政治制度。它既包括皇帝对中央百官的控制,又包括对地方及各级官吏及百姓的控制,从而把专制主义的决策方式和中央集权的政治制度有机地结合在了一起,正式确立了专制主义中央集权的政治制度。这对战国前的分封制来说是一大进步;对于巩固国家统一、维护封建统治基础有十分重要的作用。
③西汉巩固
西汉建立后,实行郡国并行制,导致了王国问题的出现,使专制主义中央集权的政治制度面临严峻的挑战。为解决王国问题,景帝在削藩的基础上,平定七国之乱,收回王国官吏任免权。武帝时,又颁布了推恩令及其他举措,解除了王国的威胁。武帝又接受了董仲舒的建议,实行“罢黜百家,独尊儒术”,终于找到了一种最适合封建专制主义中央集权政治制度所需要的理论基础。从此,封建政治制度的政体基本定型,专制主义中央集权的制度得以巩固。
④隋唐完善
专制主义中央集权政治制度的加强过程中,不仅要伴随着克服中央与地方的矛盾,而且还要克服君权与相权的矛盾。隋朝实行三省六部制,把原为丞相的权力分散于三省六部。这项新的措施,被唐朝沿袭并有所发展,从而使中央集权制度得以完善。隋唐以来的科举制也是与当时政治制度的发展相适应的。三省六部制与科举制的实行,提高了行政效率,扩大了统治基础,有利于官僚队伍文化素质的提高,使专制主义中央集权制度进一步完善。
⑤北宋加强
北宋建立后,宋太祖吸取唐末五代以来藩镇割据的教训,接受赵普的建议,采取“杯酒释兵权”等举措,收回朝中大将和节度使兵权,将地方的行政、军事、财政权力收归中央,防止地方割据局面的出现,加强了中央集议,但也造成了一些不良后果,使北宋形成了庞大的官僚机构和庞大的军队,导致了后来严重的社会危机。
⑥元朝新发展
元朝实现了全国性的大统一。为了加强封建统治和对辽阔疆域的管辖,在中央设中书省;地方实行行省制度。既是元朝巩固统一的多民族国家的成功的尝试,同时又是加强中央集权的新举措,是对古代郡县制度的重大发展,对后世产生了深远影响。
⑦明清达到顶峰
明朝建立后,为处理君臣关系和中央与地方的关系,在中央废丞相,权分六部,使秦朝以来的宰相制度走到了尽头;在地方废行省,设三司,地方势力进一步削弱。明朝还遍设厂卫特务组织,实行八股取士,这是专制主义加强的突出表现。清朝沿用明制,后增设军机处,大兴文字狱,使我国专制主义中央集权的政治制度发展到登峰造极的程度。
(3)专制主义中央集权制度的历史评价
专制主义中央集权制度是建立于封建经济基础之上的。封建经济的分散性要求有一个强有力的中央集权来维护国家统一和社会稳定,以保障封建经济的发展。封建地主阶级为维持统治,需要一个强有力的政权来镇压农民的反抗,巩固自己的统治地位。分散的个体小农,也需要依赖于政治上强大的力量,以稳定社会,抵御外敌和抗击大的灾害。
专制主义中央集权制度是与中国封建生产方式相适应的。作为封建国家的管理体制,其承担着两方面的国家职能:一方面压迫、剥削、镇压人民,另一方面也起着组织公共事务的职能。
其历史作用是:它促进了统一多民族国家的形成和发展,巩固了国家统一,为封建经济的发展创造了条件,也有利于民族融合,使中国产生了高于同一时期世界上其他国家的物质文明和精神文明。但是也加强了对人民的控制,影响了政治、经济、文化等方面的自由活泼发展。这种制度又往往取决于君主个人政治品质的优劣,因为皇帝个人因素对政局影响巨大,统治集团内部的各种矛盾斗争(宦官专权、朋党之争、外戚干政等)可以说都是专制主义中央集权制度的副产品。其消极作用在封建社会后期越来越大,特别是明清以后,阻碍了资本主义萌芽的发展和社会的变革,禁锢了人们的头脑,造成了生产力的停滞。这也是中国长期停滞于封建社会的重要政治原因。
消亡原因
专制主义中央集权制度的消灭是中国社会政治经济发展和外来影响的必然结果。
1. 经济上,在资本主义萌芽的基础上,资本主义经济得以产生,并得到发展,这必然要求废除阻碍资本主义经济发展的专制制度,以保证资本主义经济的发展。
2. 政治上,日益壮大的资产阶级要求参政议政,废除专制制度。
3. 外来影响,西方资本主义政治思想传入,客观上冲击了中国的专制制度,并为建立新制度提供了模式。
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中国历史十位杰出女诗词人
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回答了这个问题 | 09-08-26
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From ancient times to whom death, specimens from loyalty according to Han Qing - Wen Tianxiang
Health and southern red beans, spring hair Ji Zhi? Jun more willing to pick them, this material the most Acacia. - Tang Wei
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色不迷人人自迷, Valentine's eyes out of beauty. Affinity over the lazy dog, three in vain when a crazy laugh. - Zeng Qing Huang
If the two love long long But this is not the whole days spent - Qin Guan
The first to show concern and worry, and enjoy themselves after everyone else - Ouyang Xiu
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Sailed the seven seas quite a task for water, except for Wushan is not a cloud. Recalling lazy to take time flowers, semi-edge of a religious and a half margin-Jun. - Tang Yuan Zhen
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Health as an outstanding personality, death is also a male ghost. Si Xiang Yu, so far, been unwilling to Jiangdong. - Li Qingzhao
Help feeling angry and lean on a railing Department, drizzly rain break.
Carry look eyes, going to Heaven and Chosho, being grand, vehement.
30 fame dust and soil, 8000 miles Clouds and Moon.
Mo power of words, a juvenile white-head, air mournful!
Jingkang shame, not yet been finalized snow.
Courtiers hate, when eradication?
Frame long car, walks Helan Mountain Que!
Hulu-like disabilities hunger meal of meat, joke about drinking the blood of Huns.
To be from scratch, pick up the old mountains and rivers, overturned Que! - Yue Fei
Neither the front nor the ancients, the latter not see newcomers. Concept of heaven and earth has passed, sorry but Tixia alone. - Chen Zi-ang
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人生自古谁无死,留取丹心照汗青——文天祥
红豆生南国,春来发几枝?愿君多采撷,此物最相思。 ——唐 王维
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色不迷人人自迷,情人眼里出西施。有缘千里来相会,三笑徒然当一痴。 ——清 黄增
两情若是久长时,又岂在朝朝暮暮——秦观
先天下之忧而忧,后天下之乐而乐——欧阳修
昨夜星辰昨夜风,画楼西畔桂堂东。身无彩凤双飞翼,心有灵犀一点通。隔座送钩春酒暖,分曹射覆蜡灯红。嗟余听鼓应官去,走马兰台类转蓬。——唐 李商隐
先天下之忧而忧,后天下之乐而乐——欧阳修
曾经沧海难为水,除却巫山不是云。取次花丛懒回顾,半缘修道半缘君。——唐 元稹
明月几时有,把酒问青天。不知天上宫阙,今夕是何年? 欲乘风归去,又恐琼楼玉宇,高处不胜寒。起舞弄清影,何似在人间! 转朱阁,低绮户,照无眠。不应有恨,何事长向别时圆? 人有悲欢离合,月有阴晴圆缺, 此事古难全。但愿人长久,千里共婵娟。 ——苏轼
独在异乡为异客,每逢佳节倍思亲。遥知兄弟登高处,遍插茱萸少一人。——王维
生当作人杰,死亦为鬼雄。至今思项羽,不肯过江东。——李清照
怒发冲冠,凭栏处,潇潇雨歇。
抬望眼,仰天长啸,壮怀激烈。
三十功名尘与土,八千里路云和月。
莫等闲,白了少年头,空悲切!
靖康耻,犹未雪。
臣子恨,何时灭?
架长车,踏破贺兰山阙!
状士饥餐胡虏肉,笑谈渴饮匈奴血。
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前不见古人,后不见来者。念天地之 悠悠,独怆然而涕下。——陈子昂
大江东去,浪淘尽、千古风流人物。故垒西边,人道是、三国周郎赤壁。乱石穿空,惊涛拍岸,卷起千堆雪。江山如画,一时多少豪杰。
遥想公瑾当年,小乔初嫁了,雄姿英发。羽扇纶巾,谈笑间、樯虏灰飞烟灭。故国神游,多情应笑 ,早生华发。人生如梦,一尊还酹江月。——苏轼
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1930年对国民政府造成最大威胁的报纸是什么
uio899
回答了这个问题 | 09-08-26
China's modern press
The first official newspaper --- "Northern official newspaper" (1902, Tianjin and the establishment of the National Bureau issued)
The first Chinese language business newspaper --- the "Hong Kong and abroad Hong Kong Daily News" (1858, Hong Kong)
The first commercial newspaper --- the "Hong Kong bow purchase price of paper" (1857, Hong Kong)
The first Chinese language newspaper published in our country --- "Eastern Western Monthly Magazine" (1833, Guangzhou)
The first recorded English-language newspaper reported --- Guangzhou (Guangdong Chronicle) (1827, Guangzhou - English)
The first country in modern newspaper (which is also the first foreign-language newspapers )---" Abelha da China "(1822, Macau - Portuguese)
The first modern Chinese-language newspaper (which is also the first religion, the secular press )---" Review Monthly Magazine "(1815, Singapore)
Dating back as early as 2000 years ago, China appeared similar instrument transcript. It was the copy made for Emperor Guan Fu Chen Liao Royal Instructions, and memorial and other documents and the political situation in the publication, known as "Di Bao." It has certain characteristics of the press. Can be considered the earliest form of "Government Gazette." Originally hidden in the Dunhuang Mogao Grottoes in the Tang Dynasty, "played into the hospital-like", is the oldest known in China a hand-written Di Bao, dating back over 1,000 years.
India reported about the use of printing in 1450 in Europe. Reported that Columbus discovered the New World through the newspaper appeared in 1493, is printed in Rome was the first newspaper. Was not a daily newspaper published only in the interim until a new message printed.
In 1609, Thorn was published in Germany, "Yiwei Su affairs newspaper," published once a week, which is the world's first regularly published newspaper. Soon, newspapers will be popular in Europe and news reports are generally dependent on the source of a wide range of business contacts.
Journal first issued in 1650, is published in German Timo Tritz. Although only released 3 months or so, but it is the world's first daily newspaper.
Newspapers refer to comments published in news and news-based, usually loose pages printed, non-binding, does not cover the paper publication. Have fixed names, for the public, regular, continuous distribution. Most newspapers are now published in one or several times a day, there are published several times a week, or once weekly. In this sense, the newspaper only in modern society, the ancient society's "newspaper" or not paper, or is not printed, or non-regular, continuous distribution, a certain sense, is not for the public.
The direct origin of the modern newspaper in Germany began to emerge in the 15th century printing newsprint (leaflet single news posters). Generally founded in the 1615 "Frankfurt news" as the first "real" newspaper, because the newspaper has a fixed name, published once a week on a regular basis, each with a number of articles printed on paper rather than a single piece of news (but the newspaper is single-sided printing). "Newspaper" the word in English (Newspaper) first appeared in 1665 the first newspaper in the UK "Oxford Bulletin" on the. Appeared in Leipzig, Germany in 1650 the first daily newspaper "New News", but the daily newspaper to become the protagonist, is in the 18 century. Daily popularity marked the journalism of a country or region to be mature, because of the continuous daily publication of information collection and delivery, printing technology, the quality of journalists and management levels, have put forward higher requirements.
The early newspapers and magazines are confused, there are news, but also a variety of essays and literary works, simply bound into books. For this period, newspapers and magazines, often loosely referred to as "press", the United Kingdom, France, China, the early "press" concept is used in this sense. Britain and France from the 18th century, newspapers and magazines began to clear separation of the emergence of contemporary China in the local "press" after about two decades, newspapers and magazines had a clear distinction.
Newspapers can be used as commodities, but also can be used as publicity materials of political struggle. Historically, newspapers are mostly developed Western countries has experienced three development periods: the official press period, the party newspaper and business newspapers during the period. In the official report period, the newspaper for the feudal monarchy. Is mainly propaganda of political struggle, but for franchising newspaper publishers, it is a profit through the sale of goods. Party newspapers period, a considerable number of newspapers affiliated to political parties or factions, for their own interests to make propaganda, but there are obvious political leanings large commercial newspapers. Mid-19th century, the United States, Britain and other major capitalist countries, the majority of newspapers, each newspaper's cheaper to just the smallest unit of local currency (cents, pence). When the newspaper for the basement in the public when they began to seek to maximize the public, the main purpose for profit. As a result, party paper end of the period and entered the period of commercial paper.
In order to maximize circulation, newspapers published in addition to news and information to strengthen the civilian population completely apart, more and more increased the entertainment content. In the competition with electronic media, newspapers, news-depth coverage greater attention.
Newspapers increasingly popular in the newspaper in general account for a large share, but to the public as the target audience pelagic so-called "high-level newspaper" has gradually stabilized, so the formation of popular newspapers, "senior newspaper" their living space. The former circulation of huge profits more, which limited circulation, but to influence public opinion and win the reputation of dominant. This situation more obvious countries such as Britain, Germany; while others, such distinction is not very clear, for example, the United States, France and Japan.我国近代的报业
第一份官方报纸———《北洋官报》(1902年,天津设立总局全国发行)
第一份中文商业报纸———《香港中外新报》(1858年,香港)
第一份商业性报纸———《香港船头货价纸》(1857年,香港)
第一份我国境内出版的中文报刊———《东西洋考每月统记传》(1833,广州)
第一份英文报纸———广州记录报(广东记事报)(1827年,广州—英文)
第一份国内现代报纸(也是第一份外文报刊)———《蜜蜂华报》(1822年,澳门—葡萄牙文)
第一份近代华文报刊(也是第一份宗教报刊)———《察世俗每月统记传》(1815年,新加坡)
早在距今2000年前,中国就出现过类似的文书抄本。它是当时的官府用以抄发皇帝谕旨和臣僚奏议等文件及有关政治情况的刊物,称为《邸报》。它具有报刊的某些特点。可认为是最早形式的 “政府公报”。原藏于敦煌莫高窟的唐代《进奏院状》,是中国已知的最早的一份手抄邸报,距今已有1000多年了。
使用印刷术印报大约出现在1450年的欧洲。报道哥伦布发现新大陆经历的报纸出现在1493年,是罗马当时印制的第一份报纸。当时的报纸并非天天出版,只是在有新的消息时才临时刊印。
1609年,索恩在德国出版了《艾维苏事务报》,每周出版一次,这是世界上最早定期出版的报纸。不久,报纸便在欧洲流行起来,消息报道的来源一般都依赖于联系广泛的商人。
日报首次发行于1650年,是德国人蒂莫特里茨出版的。虽然只发行了3个月左右,但却是世界上第一份日报。
报纸指以刊载新闻和新闻评论为主,通常散页印刷,不装订、没有封面的纸质出版物。有固定名称,面向公众,定期、连续发行。现在多数报纸每日出版一次或数次,也有每周出版几次或每周出版一次的。这种意义上的报纸只出现在现代社会,古代社会的“报纸”或不是纸质的,或不是印刷的,或非定期、连续发行,一定意义上也不是面向公众的。
现代报纸的直接起源是德国15世纪开始出现的印刷新闻纸(单张单条的新闻传单)。一般把1615年创刊的《法兰克福新闻》视为第一张“真正的”报纸,因为该报有固定名称、每周定期出版一次、每张纸上印有数条而不是单条新闻(但是该报是单面印刷)。“报纸”的英文一词(Newspaper)最早出现于1665年英国第一家报纸《牛津公报》上。1650年在德国莱比锡出现最早的日报《新到新闻》,但是日报成为报纸的主角,是在18世纪以后。日报的普及,标志着一个国家或地区的新闻业得以成熟,因为日报的连续出版,对信息的采集和发送、印刷技术、新闻人员的素质和管理人员的水平,都提出了较高的要求。
初期的报纸和杂志是混同的,有新闻,也有各种杂文和文学作品,简单地装订成册。对于这个时期的报纸和杂志,通常笼统地称“报刊”,英国、法国、中国早期的“报刊”概念,便是在这个意义上使用的。英国和法国从18世纪起,报纸与杂志开始明显地分离,中国在本土出现现代“报刊”后约二十年,报纸和杂志的分野得到明确。
报纸可以作为商品,也可以作为政治斗争的宣传品。历史上,西方发达国家的报纸大多经历了三个发展时期:官报时期、党报时期和商业报纸时期。在官报时期,报纸对于封建王权来说.主要是政治斗争的宣传品,但对于特许经营报纸的出版商来说,它是一种通过出售而获利的商品。党报时期,相当多的报纸从属于各个政党或派别,为各自的利益作宣传,但也存在较大的有明显政治倾向的商业性报纸。19世纪中叶,美国、英国等主要资本主义国家的多数报纸,每份报纸的价格便宜到只是本国货币的最小单位(美分、便士)。当报纸面向下层公众之时,它们开始最大限度地争取公众,以赢利为主要目的。于是,党报时期结束,进入了商业报纸时期。
为了最大限度地扩大发行量,报纸除了刊登新闻和强化新闻的平民化外,越来越多地增加了娱乐方面的内容。在与电子媒介的竞争中,报纸新闻的深度报道得到更大的重视。
大众化报纸逐渐在报纸总体中占据了很大的份额,但是,以中上层公众为读者对象的所谓“高级报纸”也逐渐稳定下来,于是形成大众化报纸、“高级报纸”各自的生存空间。前者发行量巨大,获利较多,后者发行量有限,但在影响舆论和赢得声誉方面占据主导地位。这种情形较为明显的国家,例如英国、德国;而另一些国家,这种分野并不很清晰,例如美国、法国、日本。
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逶国的解释
uio899
回答了这个问题 | 09-08-26
Also as "Wei extravagant", "Wei snake", "Committee winding", "Committee shift." Stroke count: 11; Radicals: Chuo; stroke order number: 31,234,531,454 explained in detail: Wei wēi 【Shape】 (shape sound. From辵(chuò), Venezuela voice. The original meaning: Bending and stretching continuously look) with the original meaning〗 〖winding Wei, meandering, expanse to the appearance. --亦作“逶侈”、“逶蛇”、“委迤”、“委移”。 笔画数:11; 部首:辶; 笔顺编号:31234531454 详细解释: 逶 wēi 【形】 (形声。从辵(chuò),委声。本义:弯曲而绵延不断的样子)同本义〖winding〗 逶,逶迆,袤去之貌。—
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大连三寰乳业有限公司工厂的发展历史
uio899
回答了这个问题 | 09-08-26
Dalian Tianshan Pharmaceutical Co., Ltd. was founded in 1992, is a drug development production and sales in a modern pharmaceutical enterprise
Tianshan Pharmaceutical in 2004, the new GMP plant is located in Dalian High-tech Park, Ganjingzi Yingchengzi am a big garden with beautiful tourist resort area Blackstone only one step away from the Dalian Zhoushuizi International Airport and 15 minutes drive from Dalian Railway Station 25 km
Tianshan Pharmaceutical Co., currently has six kinds of dosage forms more than 20 varieties of new plants using modern domestic and foreign advanced production equipment and technology
Tianshan Pharmaceutical is committed to carry forward the Chinese traditional medicine and cultural focus on independent innovation and high-tech product research and development to create products to adhere to the character and quality to create a future set of quality first prestige first brand's first strategic goal of harmonious co-operation enterprising and efficient and pragmatic devotion the development of innovative team spirit with the majority of our friends and win-win and common development and create brilliant
Dalian Tianshan Pharmaceutical products are now seeking a nationwide registration of cooperative R & D production and sales of soft capsule hard capsule pills granule production and processing plant contract commission sincerely hope that with partners around the country a long lasting partnership to achieve sustainable and healthy development of science
Dalian Tianshan Pharmaceutical Co., Ltd. is a drug development, production and sales of modern pharmaceutical enterprise, the company existing pills, tablets, hard capsules, soft capsules, granules, xylitol subpackage nearly six kinds of dosage forms 40 kinds of products, is developing four new drugs 3, a class of drugs 1. Construction area of 10,000 square meters of GMP factory is located in Dalian City, Ganjingzi Yingchengzi Industrial Park, is now business development companies are required to the National Recruitment: Candidates should send their detailed curriculum vitae (with 3 inch photo), proof of qualifications, identity card, residence booklet with a copy sent to the company, the company informed the interview will be based on resume, the send data will not be refunded, equipment operator who lives near the preferred Yingchengzi, declined to visit. The Company will participate in the Xinghai Convention and Exhibition Center to hold a large-scale job fairs and look forward to the insight consulting / join.
Current business conditions good, but low pay, the boss is very stingy, management quality is not high, poor management, the company complex interpersonal relations.大连天山药业有限公司始建于1992年是集药品开发生产销售于一体的现代化制药企业
天山药业于2004年新建GMP厂房坐落于 大连高新园区甘井子区营城子分园与美丽的大黑石旅游度假区只有一步之遥距离大连周水子国际机场15分钟车程大连火车站25公里
天山药业目前拥有6种剂型20多个品种新厂采用现代国内外先进的生产设备和技术
天山药业致力于弘扬祖国传统中医药文化着力于自主创新和高新产品的研发坚持以人品创造产品以品质创造未来树立质量第一信誉第一品牌第一的战略目标以和谐进取高效务实敬业合作发展创新的团队精神为与广大朋友共同发展创造我们共赢的辉煌
大连天山药业现在全国范围内寻求产品合作研发注册生产销售软胶囊硬胶囊丸剂颗粒剂车间承揽委托生产加工诚望与全国各地的合作伙伴建立长期持久的合作关系共同实现科学持续健康发展
大连天山药业有限公司是集药品开发、生产、销售于一体的现代化制药企业,公司现有丸剂、片剂、硬胶囊剂、软胶囊剂、颗粒剂、木糖醇分装六种剂型近40种产品,正在研制四类新药3个,一类新药1个。建筑面积10000多平方米的GMP厂房坐落在大连市甘井子区营城子工业园区,现公司因业务发展需向全国招聘:应聘者请将个人详细简历(附一寸照片3张)、学历证明、身份证、户口簿复印件一同寄至本公司,公司将根据个人简历通知面试,所寄资料恕不退还,设备操作员家住营城子附近者优先考虑,谢绝来访。本公司将参加在星海会展中心举办的大型招聘会,届时希望各有识之士咨询/加盟。
目前经营状况不错,但待遇偏低,老板很抠,管理层素质不高,管理水平较差,公司人际关系复杂.
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北宋时期统治者夺取将领兵权称为什么
uio899
回答了这个问题 | 09-08-26
杯酒释兵权
Brought in within half a year after ascending the throne, there are two Jiedushi revolted against the Sung dynasty.
Brought in person expedition, took a great effort, only then they are pacified.
For this matter, which brought the total mind is not at ease. On one occasion, he was alone to find ZHAO Pu-talk and asked him, said: "Since the Tang
Since the late North Korea in exchange for five dynasties, endless war, do not know how many people died. This in the end is what the Road
Li? "
Pu Zhao said: "The reason is simple. National chaos, fault lies in the rival principalities had too much power. If the military power concentrated in North Korea
Ting, the world is a natural Taipingwushi of. "
Brought in repeatedly nodded with appreciation the Pu Zhao rightly says.
Later, Pu Zhao brought in another right, said: "Jinjun generals Shishou Xin, Wang Qi trial two people, military power too much, or their transfer
Jin Jun is better off. "
Brought in, said: "Do not worry, this is my two old friends, will not oppose me."
Pu Zhao said: "I'm not worried about defections. But in my opinion, these two individuals did not command the talent, not control the following
The officers and men. One day, the following persons Naoqi things to, I'm afraid they Shenbuyouzhu呀! "
Brought in knock his forehead, said: "You remind afford to lose."
After a few days, which brought in a banquet at the palace, please Shishou Xin, Wang Qi Deng several veteran trial drinking.
Wine had several patrols, brought in command of the eunuchs waited on the side exit. He picked up a glass of wine, first please dried Cup, said:
"I either have your help, there will not be present this position. But you know where to do the emperor have great difficulty
Department, might as well be a Jiedushi comfortable. Upon my honor you said that this year, I do not have a night slept soundly. "
Dan Shouxin, who listened to very much surprised and quickly asked them what reason. Brought in, said: "This is not to understand? Emperor of this
Seat, who would not jealous呀? "
Dan Shouxin such as hear voice came. Everyone with a panic, kneeling on the ground, said: "Your Majesty why this is the case? Now days
Under the already settled who would be willing for His Majesty the half-hearted? "
Brought in shook his head and said: "I have a letter for you, but a few? I am afraid that your subordinate officers and men among rich people covet
Expensive, the yellow robe Prix on you. You want to quit, work? "
Dan Shouxin so hearing this, felt doom, again and again bowed, tears in her eyes, said: "We are all chuff, did not expect
This, His Majesty the guidelines a way out. "
Brought in, said: "I am for your sake, you better bring military power to pay out to the local up to be a busy officer, something for their land
Housing, to the children leave the family business, quickly burned a degree of old age. I have forged with you relatives to each other without suspicion, not better
Do? "
Dan Shouxin such as chorus, said: "Your Majesty We want to give too thoughtful啦!"
Banquet a casual, everyone to their homes. Shangchao the next day, everyone is handed a memorial, saying that his old and sick, the request
Resignation. Brought in at once awarded, to withdraw their military power, they are a large property Shangji to kill them to do it all over Jie Du
So.
The history of this thing called "杯酒释兵权" ( "Release" is the "lift").
After a period of time, there are a number of Jiedushi to the capital to Asami. Brought in a banquet at the Imperial Garden. Taejo said:
"You are the national veteran, and now the affairs of rival principalities so busy, but also that you do such a grind, I am really sorry!"
One well-behaved interfaces Jiedushi immediately said: "I had no credit to stay in this position is also inappropriate, hope
His Majesty let me grow old and return home. "
There is also interest Jiedushi do not know, Laolaodiaodiao to boast of their own experiences of some, saying that he had so many Gong Li
Labor. Brought in listening, straight eyebrows and said:
"It's all old accounts Chen, and do mention it do?"
The next day, which brought the military power of these Jiedushi all lifted.
Brought in to recover the local commanders of the military power after the establishment of a new military system, selected from the local army troops, compiled
Jin Jun, from the direct control of the emperor; around the Chief Executive has also appointed by the court. Through these measures, the newly established Northern Song Dynasty to open
Beginning to stabilize.杯酒释兵权
宋太祖即位后不出半年,就有两个节度使起兵反对宋朝。
宋太祖亲自出征,费了很大劲儿,才把他们平定。
为了这件事,宋太祖心里总不大踏实。有一次,他单独找赵普谈话,问他说:“自从唐
朝末年以来,换了五个朝代,没完没了地打仗,不知道死了多少老百姓。这到底是什么道
理?”
赵普说:“道理很简单。国家混乱,毛病就出在藩镇权力太大。如果把兵权集中到朝
廷,天下自然太平无事了。”
宋太祖连连点头,赞赏赵普说得好。
后来,赵普又对宋太祖说:“禁军大将石守信、王审琦两人,兵权太大,还是把他们调
离禁军为好。”
宋太祖说:“你放心,这两人是我的老朋友,不会反对我。”
赵普说:“我并不担心他们叛变。但是据我看,这两个人没有统帅的才能,管不住下面
的将士。有朝一日,下面的人闹起事来,只怕他们也身不由主呀!”
宋太祖敲敲自己的额角说:“亏得你提醒一下。”
过了几天,宋太祖在宫里举行宴会,请石守信、王审琦等几位老将喝酒。
酒过几巡,宋太祖命令在旁侍候的太监退出。他拿起一杯酒,先请大家干了杯,说:
“我要不是有你们帮助,也不会有现在这个地位。但是你们哪儿知道,做皇帝也有很大难
处,还不如做个节度使自在。不瞒各位说,这一年来,我就没有一夜睡过安稳觉。”
石守信等人听了十分惊奇,连忙问这是什么缘故。宋太祖说:“这还不明白?皇帝这个
位子,谁不眼红呀?”
石守信等听出话音来了。大家着了慌,跪在地上说:“陛下为什么说这样的话?现在天
下已经安定了,谁还敢对陛下三心二意?”
宋太祖摇摇头说:“对你们几位我还信不过?只怕你们的部下将士当中,有人贪图富
贵,把黄袍披在你们身上。你们想不干,能行吗?”
石守信等听到这里,感到大祸临头,连连磕头,含着眼泪说:“我们都是粗人,没想到
这一点,请陛下指引一条出路。”
宋太祖说:“我替你们着想,你们不如把兵权交出来,到地方上去做个闲官,买点田产
房屋,给子孙留点家业,快快活活度个晚年。我和你们结为亲家,彼此毫无猜疑,不是更好
吗?”
石守信等齐声说:“陛下给我们想得太周到啦!”
酒席一散,大家各自回家。第二天上朝,每人都递上一份奏章,说自己年老多病,请求
辞职。宋太祖马上照准,收回他们的兵权,赏给他们一大笔财物,打发他们到各地去做节度
使。
历史上把这件事称为“杯酒释兵权”(“释”就是“解除”)。
过了一段时期,又有一些节度使到京城来朝见。宋太祖在御花园举行宴会。太祖说:
“你们都是国家老臣,现在藩镇的事务那么繁忙,还要你们干这种苦差,我真过意不去!”
有个乖巧的节度使马上接口说:“我本来没什么功劳,留在这个位子上也不合适,希望
陛下让我告老回乡。”
也有个节度使不知趣,唠唠叼叼地把自己的经历夸说了一番,说自己立过多少多少功
劳。宋太祖听了,直皱眉头,说:
“这都是陈年老账了,尽提它干什么?”
第二天,宋太祖把这些节度使的兵权全部解除了。
宋太祖收回地方将领的兵权以后,建立了新的军事制度,从地方军队挑选出精兵,编成
禁军,由皇帝直接控制;各地行政长官也由朝廷委派。通过这些措施,新建立的北宋王朝开
始稳定下来。
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山东省金乡县鸡黍镇二贤祠是不是要重建
uio899
回答了这个问题 | 09-08-26
First:
According to "Runan County," records, Ji Su Kim Pu Cun Dipu Town station in the Golden North, next to two-yin Temple, dedicated to paradigm, Zhang Shao. Goldsmith originally named Zhang Zhuangcun, the Eastern Han Dynasty, the Runan Zhangzhuang Chang Shao as too students, and Shandong Jinxiang paradigm students, two have very deep friendship. Graduation parting, the paradigm about next year, to a certain date, Deng Tang Ru Meet Zhang Shao mother. The following year, agreed the day comes, Zhang Shao, good food and other mothers paradigm, Zhang Jinxiang mother thought too far, paradigm may not be able to, Zhang Shao think that paradigm is very keep faith, be sure to go to. Zhang mother to kill a chicken to do Millet (small rice), waiting for the arrival of paradigm. To noon, paradigm As it turned out, and two in the soil outside the Bomb and other platforms. Zhang said the mother and the local people are all paradigm believer. After each paradigm to Ru, Zhang Shao and that is on land set the stage to entertain him chicken millet. A few years later, Zhang Shao seriously ill, bedridden, dying before but unfortunately can not see the paradigm. Funeral, the coffins re-moved intact. Has been done Gongcao paradigm, a dream friend died, prime horse bicycle to come to offer condolences, he Zhifu, coffins only in the earth. Descendants built chicken Millet Taiwan, in the Chang house built two-yin Temple, changing Zhangzhuang village shop for gold to show their mark.
Second:
In 1162, Song Xiao Zhong Zhang Jun Zhao Shen begun using war party in preparation for the Northern Expedition. Xiao-Zong summoned Lu, Lu You like to take this opportunity to put forward a number of political and military ideas, and to give strong support to Chao-shen. But the Northern Expedition lost again to the Golden Song sum, Xiao Zhong will be shaken, North Korea reconcilable Taliban resurgence, Zhang Jun was dismissed from office, Lu has also been cutting staff return home. 1170, Lu to Interpreting (today's Sichuan Fengjie County) either pass sentence. And later went to Sichuan to Wang Yan Xuan Fu of the shogunate in handling military affairs, and actively to the Yan-fighting strategy for the resumption of the Central Plains. However, due to the obstruction of the North Korea capitulators destruction, Wang Yan been recalled to court, the shogunate was withdrawn casual. Lu not only fail to achieve the operational idea that he was transferred to Chengdu prefecture An Fusi any official reference instrument.
The summer of 1173, he was appointed to the Sichuan state (chongqing, Sichuan) pass sentence (Deputy Zhou Guan). Soon, they were transferred to Chia-Chou (Sichuan Leshan), until the end of the state back to Sichuan. No one to turn to serve the country, Oi weakness, finally in October 1174, Lu was again transferred to the state-wing (Sichuan Rongxian) to proactive reasonable state of things. Lu, in the Shu state although only one year, but the feelings are very deep state of Sichuan. Even in his later years returned to his home in Zhejiang Sanin and has also written many poems commemorate Shu states. Shu-Fang Weng state of people also miss the poet, the poet, after a long Ke, people's deepening flower filled lake for him and Zhao Bian ([Song] a royal officials and has been the subject Shu Zhou Guan) the amendment of a temple, said Zhao Lu Gongci, later renamed "Two-yin temple." Now, the "two-yin Temple," has been converted to "Lu Memorial Hall."
Third:
Kamrob (birth and death unknown), under Cai Qin Warring States Period (this is a Yingshang County Kamrob township) people. Kamrob, Gan Mao's grandson, the famous young hero during the Warring States Period. Kamrob 12-year-old Ren Lu Pu-wei Qin phase of the attendants, government and little-known, one wishes to send to go to Qin Yan, Lu Pu-wei please veteran Zhang Tang Ying life, advice has proved futile. Kamrob went to see Zhang Tong, analyzing the world trend. Number listed to make the pros and cons, he says, impressed with Chang Tang, Sui is pleased to be making life-yan, Lu Pu-wei much appreciated Kamrob talented people. Soon the matter by Lu Pu-wei recommendation as, Kamrob as a special envoy of the King of Qin, was ordered to go to Zhao, in order to eloquently persuade zhaowang hair Bing Gong Yan, Qin does not cost a soldier, may the city 5. Kamrob set outstanding service, Mitsutomo shook, was labeled on the Qinzhao Wang Qing, and to forfeiture of the Gan Mao Tianzhai thanks back to him.
The Ming Dynasty, Yingshang County established a "two-yin Temple," to commemorate the Gan Mao, Kamrob grandparent and grandchild. After the two Yin Temple is extended to the "four-yin Temple," by Si Guan Zhong, Bao Shuya.
Fourth:
Dacheng Hall of Confucius Temple in the construction of water on either side of the courtyard, as well as embody the "Temple of learning one" thing Minglun Hall. Tsung-yin Temple Shrine and the east side there are two positions shrine. 2 Yin Temple is countryman commemorate Hongwu years been relegated to the Confucian Temple lecture more than ten years, two literati built shrine.
Fifth:
Fung Yu-lan in Changsha, a poem: "Two years thanks to Zhu Zhang Yin Temple, for a thousand years Ka hall." Zhu Zhang, Changsha has a ferry, it should be is to commemorate Zhu Xi and Zhang Shi controversy.第一:
据《汝南县志》记载,鸡黍台位于金铺镇金铺村北,旁有二贤祠,供奉范式、张劭。金铺原名张庄村,东汉时,汝南张庄人张邵为太学生,与山东金乡范式同学,二人友谊甚笃。卒业临别时,范式约明年某年某日去汝登堂拜见张劭母亲。第二年,约定的日子到来时,张劭让母亲做好饭菜等范式,张母以为金乡太远,范式未必能到,张劭认为范式很守信义,一定能到。张母就杀鸡做黍(小米饭),等待范式到来。到中午,范式果然到了,二人在门外土台上尽欢而别。张母及乡人无不称范式为信士。以后,每次范式来汝,张劭即于土台上置鸡黍来招待他。几年后,张劭患重病,卧床不起,临终前以不得见范式而憾。出殡时,棺重移不动。已做功曹的范式,梦见好友病故,素马单车前来吊唁,由他执绋,棺柩才埋入土中。后人筑鸡黍台,在张宅建二贤祠,改张庄为金乡铺,以示纪念。
第二:
1162年,宋孝宗赵慎起用主战派张浚,准备北伐。孝宗召见了陆游,陆游趁此良机提出了许多政治军事主张,并给予赵慎以有力支持。但是北伐失利,宋再度向金求和,孝宗意志动摇,朝中主和派重新抬头,张浚被罢官,陆游也被削职还乡。1170年,陆游到夔州(今四川奉节县)任通判。后来又到四川宣抚使王炎的幕府中办理军务,积极向王炎提出恢复中原的作战策略。但是,由于朝中投降派的阻挠破坏,王炎被召回朝廷,幕府也被撤散。陆游的作战主张不仅得不到实现,自己也被调到成都府安抚司任参仪官。
1173年夏,他被任命为蜀州(四川崇庆)通判(副州官)。不久,又被调到嘉州(四川乐山),年底才又回到蜀州。报国无门,爱民无力,终于在1174年十月,陆游又被调到荣州(四川荣县)去摄理州事。陆游,在蜀州虽然只有一年多时间,但对蜀州感情十分深厚。即使晚年回到浙江山阴老家,也还写了许多记念蜀州的诗篇。蜀州人民也怀念放翁诗人,诗人长溘之后,人们的罨花池旁为他和赵忭([宋代]一御吏,曾作蜀州官)修一庙宇,称赵陆公祠,后改称“二贤祠”。现在,“二贤祠”已改建为“陆游纪念馆”。
第三:
甘罗(生卒不详)战国末期秦国下蔡(今属颍上县甘罗乡)人。 甘罗,甘茂之孙,战国时著名的少年英雄。甘罗12岁任秦相吕不韦的侍从,朝野鲜为人知,一次秦欲派使赴燕,吕不韦请老臣张唐应命,屡劝无效。甘罗去见张唐,分析天下大势。数列出使利弊,说得张唐叹服,遂欣然应命使燕,吕不韦大加赞赏甘罗之才。此事不久,经吕不韦荐举,甘罗作为秦王特使,奉命赴赵,以雄辩说服赵王发兵攻燕,秦不费一兵一卒,得城五座。甘罗立下奇功,满朝为之震动,被秦昭王封为上卿,并把甘茂充公的田宅赐还给他。
明代,颍上县建“二贤祠”,纪念甘茂、甘罗祖孙。后二贤祠扩建为“四贤祠”,增祀管仲、鲍叔牙。
第四:
在建水文庙大成殿庭院东西两侧,还有体现“庙学合一”的东西明伦堂。崇圣殿东侧有二贤祠和仓圣祠。二贤祠是乡人纪念明洪武年间被贬谪至文庙讲学十余年的两位文人学士而建的祠堂。
第五:
冯友兰在长沙有诗:“二贤祠里拜朱张,一会千秋嘉会堂。”长沙有一处朱张渡口,应该是纪念朱熹和张栻论战的。
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辛亥革命如何对戊戌变法既否定又发展
uio899
回答了这个问题 | 09-07-22
Chen Xu Lu historians believe that: the Reform Movement of Reform and Revolution in Modern China is the road ahead of the history of the two alternating stages. Revolution and the changes in the historical status of improvement, reflecting both the Revolution to the Reform Movement and the negative history of the development of the dialectical relationship.
[Problem-solving process]
① alternately: the Sino-Japanese War, the unprecedented national crisis, the development of national capitalism, the bourgeois reformers advocated reform of the reform of social progress has become the mainstream of thought, and promote for political salvation to improve movement, Reform hundred days to make reform reached a climax. Reform of the Reform Movement failed, "Xin Chou Treaty" signed between the Qing Government has become a tool of foreign powers; a large number of patriots took to the road of revolution, the bourgeois democratic revolution to replace the improvements, to become the mainstream of historical progress; end of the Qing Dynasty to prepare constitutional bankruptcy fraud, and the revolutionary situation ripe , the Revolution broke out.
Reform of the Reform Movement of the Revolution ② both negative and history of the development of the dialectical relationship between: the failure of the Reform Movement is trying to preserve the national bourgeoisie under the premise of the rule of the Qing Dynasty, saving through an improved national peril, the failure of the capitalist road of development. Revolution to overthrow the Qing Dynasty rule, the end of the feudal monarchy, the bourgeois revolution is the negation of the party to improve the road. Revolution erected the banner of the Democratic Republic of the feudal forces and the forces of aggression against more than the Reform Movement and the development of national capitalism in China has created conditions历史学家陈旭麓认为:戊戌变法与辛亥革命是近代中国在前进道路上的两个交替的历史阶段。革命与改良历史地位的变化,反映了辛亥革命对戊戌变法既否定又发展的历史辩证关系。
[解题过程]
①交替出现:甲午战争后,民族危机空前严重,民族资本主义发展,资产阶级维新派主张的维新变法成为社会进步思潮的主流,并推进为救亡图存的政治改良运动,百日维新使变法达到高潮。戊戌变法失败,《辛丑条约》签订,清政府完全成为列强的工具;促使大批爱国人士走上革命道路,资产阶级民主革命取代改良,成为历史进步的主流;清末预备立宪骗局破产,革命形势成熟,辛亥革命爆发。
②辛亥革命对戊戌变法既否定又发展的历史辩证关系:戊戌变法失败,是民族资产阶级试图在保存清朝统治的前提下,通过改良挽救民族危亡,发展资本主义道路的失败。辛亥革命推翻清朝统治,结束封建帝制,是资产阶级革命派对改良道路的否定。辛亥革命树起民主共和的旗帜,对封建势力和侵略势力的打击大于戊戌变法,并为中国民族资本主义发展创造了条件
Chen Xu Lu historians believe that: the Reform Movement of Reform and Revolution in Modern China is the road ahead of the history of the two alternating stages. Revolution and the changes in the historical status of improvement, reflecting both the Revolution to the Reform Movement and the negative history of the development of the dialectical relationship.
[Problem-solving process]
① alternately: the Sino-Japanese War, the unprecedented national crisis, the development of national capitalism, the bourgeois reformers advocated reform of the reform of social progress has become the mainstream of thought, and promote for political salvation to improve movement, Reform hundred days to make reform reached a climax. Reform of the Reform Movement failed, "Xin Chou Treaty" signed between the Qing Government has become a tool of foreign powers; a large number of patriots took to the road of revolution, the bourgeois democratic revolution to replace the improvements, to become the mainstream of historical progress; end of the Qing Dynasty to prepare constitutional bankruptcy fraud, and the revolutionary situation ripe , the Revolution broke out.
Reform of the Reform Movement of the Revolution ② both negative and history of the development of the dialectical relationship between: the failure of the Reform Movement is trying to preserve the national bourgeoisie under the premise of the rule of the Qing Dynasty, saving through an improved national peril, the failure of the capitalist road of development. Revolution to overthrow the Qing Dynasty rule, the end of the feudal monarchy, the bourgeois revolution is the negation of the party to improve the road. Revolution erected the banner of the Democratic Republic of the feudal forces and the forces of aggression against more than the Reform Movement and the development of national capitalism in China has created conditions
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双色球发行历史
uio899
回答了这个问题 | 09-07-22
No, if not the letter to:
福彩official website: <a href="www.zhcw/" target="_blank"> www.zhcw/ </ a> historical data to the right.没有,如果不信到:
福彩官方网站:<a href="www.zhcw/" target="_blank">www.zhcw/</a>历史数据去对。
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七年级下历史与社会开放性试题
uio899
回答了这个问题 | 09-07-21
Yiwu terrain
Lying down from northeast to southwest ease. North, East, South on three sides of Longmen mountains, Hueiji mountains, big mountains and rolling仙霞岭余脉with Yongkang community on the tip of the Big Chill, 925.6 meters above sea level, is the city's highest point on the right bank of the northern Great Chenjiang Wayao first , 41.9 meters above sea level the lowest point. Shallow hill in central and downs, and constitute the north-east towards south-west-style promenade along the river plain.
Yiwu weather
Sub-tropical monsoon climate, Yiwu city, the annual average temperature 17.2 ℃, 1 monthly average temperature 4.6 ℃, 7 monthly average temperature 29.3 ℃. 1326 millimeters average annual precipitation. Annual average 2130 hours of sunshine. The average frost-free period 243 days. Regardless of the eastern part of justice Tong Town Reservoir near 1150 millimeters of annual precipitation, rainfall is the smallest center in Jinhua. Also occur at different time and hail, typhoons, drought, floods and other natural disasters.
Yiwu's location
Yiwu in central Zhejiang Province in China. Yiwu City, there are at present has a population of 1,800,000. Mainly Han Chinese, there back, Miao, Yi, Zhuang, Tujia, Va, She, Mongolian, Tibetan, Uygur, Buyi, Manchu, Dong, Bai, Hani, Dai, Lisu Lisu ethnic minority groups 23. Qin G Twenty-five years (formerly 222) Ukraine home County, in the case of Hueiji County. Tang Wude four (621) silk home injuries in the Ukrainian state, Ukraine is divided into six years of filial piety, Hwacheon counties, seven states silk waste, or counties that the county of Yiwu. Removed in May 1988 the county established as a city. Metal resources of uranium, iron, copper, lead, zinc, manganese. Non-metallic fluorite resources, coal, graphite, marble, refractory clay and so on. Animal resources pangolins, Jiang pigs, civet, deer and so on. Flowering plants palm tree wood, Zhejiang Nan, a smile and so on. White material of Chinese herbal medicine techniques, Salvia, Platycodon such. Native products are ham, Southern dates, such as red chicken feathers.颜孝sub-sites there is the tomb of Qin, Guo Pu Jin created wells, Temple, Shanxi, Luo家塘sites,宋宗泽ancestors tomb, temple, such as Feng Chian.
Yiwu history
Spring and Autumn Period, when the country is more. Twenty-five years赢政Qin (BC 222 years) to build the county were injured and Ukraine, which is Hueiji County. There is a legend Qin Yan Wu,至孝pro-matter, the father of negative territory after the death of building graves, the title of land to help a group of crows, crows beak are the result of injury, so that injury County Ukraine.新莽pm (Year 9 years) to Ukraine filial County.
Eastern Han Wu said Jianwu injury in early rehabilitation. Hueiji都尉who rule the west. Chu Ping three years (192 years) jurisdiction throughout the western division, set up long-ken (that is, after Jinhua County).
Wu Chi Wu three years (245 years) of the Southern territory, home康县Wing. Bonding the first year (AD 266), the sub-county western Hueiji located in Dongyang County (郡治Cheung Shan), Wu Dongyang County县属injury.
隋开皇nine years (589 years), divided Wu Wucheng home state of the state.
Tang Wude four (621) wound in Uzbekistan Chouzhou County home, and split-Xiao Wu, Hwacheon II Prefecture. Wude seven years (624 years) Chouzhou waste, or Orchard filial piety, a Hwacheon County, was renamed Yiwu County. Chouzhou to thick Shan (Desheng Yan) named. Hwacheon embroidery, also known as Sichuan, to name embroidered Lake. Yiwu its meaning injury and Ukraine, and Uzbekistan with filial piety. Tang垂拱two years (686 years) analysis of Yiwu County Habitat for Dongyang County. Tianbao thirteen years (754 years), was divided into northern and Lanxi County, Fuyang all part of Pune-based County (now River County).
Yuan, Yiwu Wucheng State Road under the House Manager. Positive eighteen years (1358) the emperor Wu攻取Department of State, to Wucheng Yeongwol State House Road. Positive Twenty-two years (in 1362) and renamed the King Washington.
明嘉靖thirty-eight years (1559) of the Qi-jun Chen戚家Yiwu in Zhejiang, with a total strength of 4000 people, mainly farmers and miners is Yiwu. Own military, the size of hundreds of war has not been routed.
Ming and Qing Dynasties still, Yiwu affiliation has not changed. After the Revolution, the repeal of the system on behalf of the Government to Road system, Yiwu Jinhua Road is. Spent 1927 County Road system to a two-tier system for the province, directly under the Zhejiang Yiwu. Meta-Chief Inspector's Office, or Area, Yiwu, Jinhua, Zhejiang Province is the fourth area.
May 8, 1949 Yiwu liberation. After the founding of new China, Yiwu Jinhua an area.
Yiwu River in 1959 into 1967, still precipitates.
Revocation of Yiwu County in 1988, the establishment of Yiwu city (county level).
In 1983, the change for the rural communes.
In 1986, yiting township, on the Township, the Soviet Union Township, Niansanli townships, towns changed.
1987, Chian Township, Dachen townships, towns hawthorn Lin Heung changed.
After the house in 1988 replaced the rural towns.
In 1989, Miss towns店乡changed.
In 1992, Liu Qing, the former Hong, Qiaodong, Yangcun, Futian, such as rural population into cities and towns, Wang Qian, farm Tian Zhu, Hang Heung domain into three Yiting Town, River, China, Huangshan into two rural on the town, under the rural housing into Wu Zhen, the East Chu Chian Township, into the town, the new new, Qiao River 3 Rural Yangmei Kong incorporated into the Soviet Union Town, where the rural and the beginning of summer in his rural, cooperation,王宅, Tin Sum three rural town into the temple, China Township廿三into town, Lake Gate, Tong Li into two after the rural town, yet by the Rural Township into Xialuozhai; UP Rural and hair Mao Zhen店乡said the merger, combination, Road East, the former stores, said the merger three Heyetang Heung Rural; Pingchou Qingkou renamed Rural Township.
Rural 1994 replaced by the next Xialuozhai towns.村乡Xu 1997, replaced by Heyetang rural towns
In 2000, the crowded cities and towns with the original, Kwun Tong, Tsuen Yang, 2 Heung combined Jiangwan Town to build thick, dense urban areas with the original Qiaodong Qingkou Rural Township, Xu Jian Jiangdong Town, the town of the merger.
Yiwu celebrities
Yiwu has a long history, built in the county in 222 BC, since 2229 production has been the history of the county, the county in 1988 to build the city evacuated. History gave birth to the "初唐四杰" one of fewer known as the "child prodigy" of Luo Binwang, Zongze's Song, Jin and Yuan, one of four doctors, the founder of Yin Xue - Zhu Dan, who understand the outspoken Xu Overseas Chinese, Huang Jin Yuan, president of officials, experts in the early Qing Dynasty朱元锡river, the modern educator Chen Wangdao, literature theorist Feng Xuefeng, the historian Wu Han and other famous people with lofty ideals. Have their articles, as well as the sake of the general good spirit of the outstanding scientific achievements and famous.义乌地形
地势自东北向西南缓降。北、东、南三面分别为龙门山脉、会稽山脉、大盘山脉和仙霞岭余脉绵延,与永康市界上的大寒尖,海拔 925.6 米,是全市最高点,北部大陈江右岸瓦窑头,海拔 41.9 米为最低点。中部浅丘起伏,并构成东北西南走向的长廊式沿江平原。
义乌气候
义乌市属亚热带季风气候,年平均气温17.2℃,1月平均气温4.6℃, 7月平均气温29.3℃。年平均降水量1326毫米。年平均日照2130小时。平均无霜期243天。义亭镇东部姑塘水库附近,年降水量1150毫米,是金华市最小雨量中心。不同时空也会发生冰雹、台风、旱、涝等自然灾害。
义乌的地理位置
义乌位于中国浙江省中部。义乌市目前实有人口已经达180万。汉族为主,有回、苗、彝、壮、土家、佤、畲、蒙古、藏、维吾尔、布依、满、侗、白、哈尼、傣、僳僳等23个少数民族。秦王政二十五年(前222)置乌伤县,属会稽郡。唐武德四年(621)于乌伤置绸州,六年分设乌孝、华川两县,七年废绸州,合两县称义乌县。1988年5月撤县设市。金属资源有铀、铁、铜、铅锌、锰。非金属资源有萤石、煤、石墨、大理石、耐火粘土等。动物资源有穿山甲、江猪、灵猫、獐等。植物资源有花榈木、浙江楠、含笑等。中草药材有白术、丹参、桔梗等。土特产品有火腿、南蜜枣、红鸡毛等。名胜古迹有秦颜孝子墓、晋郭璞所造水井、双林寺、骆家塘遗址、宋宗泽先祖墓、赤岸冯孝祠等。
义乌的历史
春秋时属越国。秦 赢政二十五年(公元前222年)建县名乌伤,属会稽郡。传说秦时有个颜乌,事亲至孝,父死后负土筑坟,一群乌鸦衔土相助,结果乌鸦嘴喙皆伤,故称乌伤县。新莽时(公元9年)改县名乌孝。
东汉建武初复称乌伤。曾为会稽西部都尉治。初平三年(192年)分割西部辖境,设置长山县(即后之金华县)。
三国吴赤乌八年(245年)分南境,置永康县。宝鼎元年(公元266年),分会稽郡西部设东阳郡(郡治长山),乌伤县属东阳郡。
隋 开皇九年(589年),分割吴州置婺州。
唐 武德四年(621)于乌伤县置稠州,并分置乌孝、华川二县。武德七年(624年)废稠州,合乌孝、华川为一县,改名义乌县。稠州以稠山(德胜岩)而得名。华川又名绣川,以绣湖得名。义乌其义与乌伤、乌孝同。唐垂拱二年(686年)析义乌县东境设东阳县。天宝十三年(754年),又分县境北部及兰溪、富阳各一部分,设浦阳县(今浦江县)。
元代,义乌隶属婺州路总管府。至正十八年(1358年)朱元璋部攻取婺州,改婺州路为宁越府。至正二十二年(1362年)又改名金华府。
明 嘉靖三十八年(1559)戚继光的戚家军成军于浙江义乌,总兵力四千人,主力是义乌农民和矿工。自成军起,大小数百战未尝败绩。
明清仍旧,义乌隶属关系未变。辛亥革命后,废府制代以道制,义乌属金华道。1927年废道制改为省县两级制,义乌直属浙江省。后设行政督察专员公署,义乌属金华专区或浙江省第四专区。
1949年5月8日义乌解放。新中国成立后,义乌属金华专区。
1959年浦江并入义乌,1967年仍析出。
1988年撤销义乌县,设立义乌市(县级)。
1983年,改公社为乡。
1986年,义亭乡、上溪乡、苏溪乡、廿三里乡、改为建制镇。
1987年,赤岸乡、大陈乡、楂林乡改为建制镇。
1988年后宅乡改为建制镇。
1989年,吴店乡改为建制镇。
1992年,柳青、前洪、桥东、杨村、福田等乡并入稠城镇,王阡、畈田朱、杭畴3个乡并入义亭镇,溪华、黄山2个乡并入上溪镇,下宅乡并入吴店镇,东朱乡并入赤岸镇,新新、巧溪、杨梅岗3乡并入苏溪镇,何里乡并入夏演乡,合作、王宅、田心3个乡并入佛堂镇,华溪乡并入廿三里镇,湖门、塘李2个乡并入后宅镇,尚经乡并入下骆宅乡;尚阳乡与毛店乡合并称毛店镇,联合、路东、前店3个乡合并称荷叶塘乡;平畴乡改称青口乡。
1994年下骆宅乡改为建制镇。1997年徐村乡、荷叶塘乡改为建制镇
2000年,稠城镇原杨村乡与官塘、江湾2乡合并建稠江镇,稠城镇的原桥东乡与青口乡、徐江镇合并建江东镇。
义乌名人
义乌历史悠久,建县于公元前222年,距今已有2229年的建县史,1988年撤县建市。历史上孕育了“初唐四杰”之一,少时被称为“神童”的骆宾王、宋代名将宗泽、金元四大名医之一,滋阴学创始人--朱丹溪、明白刚直士徐侨、元代总裁官黄晋、清初治河专家朱元锡、现代教育家陈望道、文艺理论家冯雪峰、历史学家吴晗等一批名人志士。都以他们的文章、精忠报国的精神以及在科学上的杰出成就而闻名于世。
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《梓辛河》的来历及起止地点
uio899
回答了这个问题 | 09-07-21
Zi Xin River. Car is located in the south of River Road, west City Park East Gate, cross the Weihe River, Xitang Hong Kong, Hong Kong Tang River, Salt River to the east Jing 2 kilometers west of Taiwan, and the mussels into串场indicum River River confluence. Depalletizing field by the river, Lin Wu, Zhu-hong, large stack, Di stack, six townships, such as陶庄total length of 30.4 kilometers, the current river elevation -0.6 ~ -1.6 m底宽32 ~ 63 meters, wide-mouth 80 ~ 100 meters.梓辛河。位于车路河之南,西起城区东门泊,横贯渭水河、西塘港、唐港河、盐靖河至东台城西2公里处,与蚌蜒河合流注入串场河。该河流经垛田、林湖、竹泓、大垛、荻垛、陶庄等6个乡镇,全长30.4公里,目前河底高程-0.6~-1.6米,底宽32~63米,口宽80~100米。
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汉代剑的历史
uio899
回答了这个问题 | 09-07-21
Sword, one of ancient weapons, known as "King hundred soldiers," the name.
The history of the sword
Produced in the Shang Dynasty, short or sharp triangular pattern was first for the copper.
Spring and Autumn, the main weapons for infantry combat, and constantly extended. One Hubei Jiangling Wangshan Yue Chu Tomb in勾践sword unearthed there are 55.7 centimeters in length. Emperor, there were more than three feet by two arc blade song and stretching, as straight, Jianfeng sharp increase from the angle. Eastern Han Dynasty, and gradually withdraw from the arena of war, in order to wear body guards of honor or self-defense martial arts. After the Han Dynasty bronze swords were gradually to replace the iron and steel swords, and tend to stereotype, or blade in the ridges, both sides have the edge, before剑尖, sword in the first, after the stem, stem-side-based Central Office, Tan said, There are also scabbard,剑穗ancillary accessories. Sui and Tang dynasties, the prevalence sword. "Sui-chi ritual book" contains: "One Product, jade sword, Pei Shan Yu Hyun. II products, Gold sword, carry water Cang Yu. Kaiguo the third grade and sub-men, five, such as casual (BCH) Hou No. Although the name Fourth, fifth and snow sword, carry water Cang Yu,侍中have been under the direct pass Lang has been on the bit with the sword is like. with straight sword, and into the temple and升殿, if in the battle, the sword all solution. a goods and casual (BCH)郡公, founding public Shalhoub, are double-pei. II products, the third grade and sub-founding M, V, such as bulk (BCH) Hou numbers are only revolver. Shouguan like to. "height in the Tang Dynasty was文人墨客as accessories, to express in lofty aspirations or performance Yingzi Shangwu. After the bond connected to the sword and Taoism, Taoist priest who became one of the hands of the instruments used.
Swords, the ancient saint of goods also,至尊至your people God Chatham Chong. Soldiers short of their ancestors is the last stroke of the device, to Road Arts and deep, then into the mysterious legend. In fact, because of their portability of the lightweight, carry the look, using them quickly, so historical Hou Wang Dili, scribes knight and merchants the common people, in order to hold the world are proud of. Sword and art, since ancient times, often on the battlefield China, dominate the martial arts, Li Li-shen, the仗义jen, it has spread, people still love, but also for its glorious history, deeply rooted in people's minds, Li Chuan-downs can not be bad.
Xuanyuan sword since the founding era of the Yellow Emperor. According to the Yellow Emperor of the Jiyun: "Dili Copper Mountain Mining sword first to astronomy of ancient word-ming"; also, according to several articles Guanzi goes: "Xi Lu Shan Ge days made out of gold, and rule by Chiyou that sheathed sword . " More than two, said the Yellow Emperor and Chiyou may have their own sword for the soldier system.
According to the above, regardless of whom the founder of the sword, the Yellow Emperor was born in the era can be no doubt. Million before the Yellow Emperor to the people in 4615 [2704 BC] built, the country has熊氏, when entering the Fashion Department of the Bronze period, but the push is known that the sword was born of a very ancient, has a long history , after it called the "ancestor of soldiers short," there can be well-deserved.
Since the Yellow Emperor to the Eastern Zhou Dynasty, most of them to bronze swords, sword good quality, is becoming more and more progress in refining technology. The time of the Spring and Autumn and is scheduled to sword system, detailed statement of the law system of the sword. Kao Gong Ji Zhou says: "Tao Zhou's sword, the Prince二寸wide half, two from a half, with its wax was wide. Stem round of long times. In their stems, then service, and he was very five of its stems, Chongjiu Victor [Note: The 62 semi-Chou is a clang], that the above system, the soil of service. length four of its stems, clang, seven that are system services of sergeant. length three of its stem, weighing five-cheong, service of Corporal. " Archaeological mind and says: "A sword of the ancient device,两刃and ridges, from back to edge, it means that Prince, or that of E [ie blade]. The back edge of the following, with the handle separated from the Green, it means that the first [ that is, the sword plate], following the first grasp the stem of the said [that hilt], stem-side ring spinning duo said. "
Introduction sword
From above we can see that the sword is long and pointed with the锋刃weapons, while the size of the length, depending on the human body as the standard, is to be determined by the volume of people. Zheng Jian-E has been more detailed in that "people of different lengths of the morphology of the size of it, the system for its service sword, non-straight in order to view the United States, to the appropriate use of it. Therefore, for the third class of system, to be third-class people, so with the wish and自便behavior. the sword of its long stems五寸, five times longer blade if its stem, is also deep, Victor Chongjiu, then the two have re-three catties 12, its extremely long, extremely heavy also, so that on the system. the only long and powerful people, and then to beat them, it is served on the Sergeant. blade four of its stem, stem length is also二尺五寸, seven-cheong, the two also二斤14, the length of the severity of a behavior, so that in the system. the only people who wish to have in service, the service of Sgt. If the blade only three of its stem, while the second ear-foot and weighs only five-cheong, the二斤123 parts per ear, light and short, so that under the system. disabilities and little power in the short form, and behavior can be served. "
Sword above system, probably used in ancient times, history is still more changes, since the Qin至宋, especially large改易. Mr E says: "In terms of the Qin and Han Dynasties and the Song of the Sword Sword of comparison, the Song has 21-inch long two-thirds of the Han, when only 17 inches long 9 hours. 15-inch dagger Song 2 points, Han ten-inch dagger only five, so the more Han Sword Song Sword of long hours, and better quality. " Having said that statement, when, according to some, but not agree with it. Covered by the use of the sword, not for killing, but also scholars of the jewelry, however, keep the enemy for self-defense is still the main study, such as the use of the sword is not long, the short sword is hard to view Zhiyuan, who felt not easy to hit short-kin , the slow wave is heavier and the elderly, both should be non-sword system. Card to books have made: "Han emperor battle sword stroke derived from the world," the long sword as the Han Dynasty两尺be mistaken understanding of that. If a comprehensive history of the sword in mind that probably古剑long四尺from one foot to more than three-inch range, and its weight is two to three catties is located at the system vary from person to person, to be credible.
Official sword is also a scholar of the enthusiasts, and art flow before the inscription carved on the blade above the painting, following the hilt on the landscaping on their type, additional LOH ornaments, and in the gold-plated scabbard嵌玉, the its originality, history of Fu, there are not extravagant.
Short sword is a soldier, derived from the spear-shaped and short dagger stabbed soldiers, from the beginning of the Shang ago, a very short form, and only a short flat stems, but no tube.此剑插腰the ancients used to cut barbed to resist gangs and the Beast Kou. To the Zhou Dynasty, especially the Spring and Autumn Period, the Warring States period, has become a major short weapons, types of disabilities must be equipped with the. Even with the early Han Feng Xuan of the Han, although the poor to non-food, is still carrying. There are well-known go-getters, moye, Longquan, too Ah, pure-Jun,湛卢, incorrectly, such as巨阙. Spring and Autumn when龙泉剑, there are still a possession of the Palace Museum, are still very keen to prove that our country in the manufacture and use of the sword, the has a long history.
Information relating to the sword
"Takebe beginner in mind sword": "then there is the Longquan Chu, Qin has too Ah, engineering, Wu Gan, Ye镆is hard steel, the more pure hook,湛卢, Hao Cao, incorrectly, from巨阙the sword. "
"Tube" said: "Celecoxib剑,古代兵器之一,素有“百兵之君”的美称。
剑的历史
产生在商代,较短,呈柳叶或锐三角形,初为铜制。
春秋战国,为步战主要兵器,不断加长。湖北江陵望山一号楚墓中出土的越王勾践剑全长有 55.7厘米。 汉武帝时,有超过3尺,剑刃由两度弧曲而伸,成平直,剑锋的夹角由锐加大。 东汉,逐渐退出了战争舞台,为佩带仪仗或习武强身自卫。 汉代后铜剑渐被钢铁剑替代,并趋于定型,即剑身中有脊,两侧有刃,前有剑尖,中有剑首,后有茎,茎端设环处称镡,此外尚有剑鞘、剑穗等附属饰物。 隋唐,佩剑盛行。《隋书·礼仪志》载:“一品,玉器剑,佩山玄玉。二品,金装剑,佩水苍玉。三品及开国子男,五等散(散)品名号侯虽四、五品,并银装剑,佩水苍玉,侍中已下,通直郎已上,陪位则象剑。带直剑者,入宗庙及升殿,若在仗内,皆解剑。一品及散(散)郡公,开国公侯伯,皆双佩。二品、三品及开国子男,五等散(散)品号侯,皆只佩。绶亦如之。” 唐代最盛,被文人墨客视为饰物,抒以凌云壮志或表现尚武英姿。 后剑与道教接上不解之缘,成了道士们手中的法器之一。
剑,古之圣品也,至尊至贵,人神咸崇。乃短兵之祖,近搏之器,以道艺精深,遂入玄传奇。实则因其携之轻便,佩之神采,用之迅捷,故历朝王公帝侯,文士侠客,商贾庶民,莫不以持之为荣。剑与艺,自古常纵横沙场,称霸武林,立身立国,行仁仗义,故流传至今,仍为世人喜爱,亦以其光荣历史,深植人心,斯可历传不衰。
剑创始自轩辕黄帝时代。据黄帝本纪云:「帝采首山之铜铸剑,以天文古字铭之」;又据管子地数篇云:「昔葛天卢之山发而出金,蚩尤受而制之,以为剑铠」。以上两说,似黄帝与蚩尤,均己制剑为兵。
据以上所述,无论剑之创始人为谁,其出生于黄帝时代,可无置疑。黄帝于民元前四六一五年[公元前二七0四年]建庙,国号有熊氏,当时尚系初入青铜器时期,但由此推知,剑之出世极为古远,历史悠久,故后人称之「短兵之祖」,确可当之无愧。
自黄帝至东周,大多以铜铸剑,剑质颇佳,炼制技术亦逐渐进步。春秋战国之时,并定剑制,详言制剑之法。周礼考工记云:「 周官桃氏为剑,腊广二寸有半,两从半之,以其腊广为之。茎圆长倍之。中其茎,役其后,身甚五其茎,重九锵[按:周礼六两半为一锵],谓之上制,上土服之。身长四其茎,重七锵,谓之中制,中士服之。身长三其茎,重五锵,下士服之 」。又考古记云:「剑,古器名,两刃而有脊,自背至刃,谓之腊,或谓之锷[即剑身]。背刃以下,与柄分隔青,谓之首[即剑盘],首以下把握之处曰茎[即剑柄],茎端旋环曰铎」。
剑的简介
由上文可知,剑为具有锋刃之尖长兵器,而其大小长短,端视人体为标准,是以须量人而定。郑锷更于剑有所详解,谓「人之形貌大小长短不一也,制剑以供其服,非直以观美,要使各适其用而已。故为三等之制,以待三等之士,俾随宜而自便焉。剑之茎其长五寸,剑身若五倍长其茎,则三尺也,重九锵,则重三斤十二两也,其长之极,重之至也,故谓上制。唯士之长而有力者,然后能胜之,故上士服之。剑身四其茎,茎之长则二尺五寸也,重七锵,则二斤十四两也,长短轻重得中焉,故谓之中制。唯人之得中者所宜服,故中士服之。若剑身止三其茎,则二尺耳,重止五锵,则二斤一两三分之中耳,轻而且短,故谓之下制。士之形短而力微者,可以服焉」。
上述剑制,大抵沿用于远古,历代仍多变更,自秦至宋,改易尤钜。郑锷云:「若以秦汉之剑与宋时之剑比较,则宋时长剑有二十一寸三分,汉时长剑仅十七寸九分。宋时短剑十五寸二分,汉时短剑仅十寸五分,故宋时之剑较汉时之剑长,且品质更优」。言虽如此,当有所据,然亦未便苟同。盖以剑之用途,虽非专供杀戮,亦为文士之饰品,然究仍以防身拒敌为主,如剑长则运用不便,剑短则难期致远,短者轻而不易击坚,长者重而挥动迟缓,二者均非剑制所宜。证以古籍有言:「汉高祖仗三尺剑而得天下」,则汉代剑长不及两尺之说谅有所误。若综合剑史所记,大抵古剑之长,由一尺三寸至四尺多不等,其重量则为二至三斤,正符因人设制,应属可信。
剑既亦为仕宦书生所同好,于是流为艺品,始则于剑身之上雕铭刻画,继则于剑柄上美化其型,附加蕙饰,进而于剑鞘上镀金嵌玉,各其匠心,历代相傅,靡有不然。
剑是短兵的一种,脱胎於矛形刺兵及短匕首,始源于殷商以前,形极为短小,仅有短平茎,而无管筒。古人用此剑插腰,可割可刺,抵御匪寇与野兽。到了周代,尤其是春秋、战国时期,已成为主要短兵器,士类必有之佩备。连冯谖与汉初的韩信,虽然贫至无食,也仍然随身携带。著名的有干将、莫邪、龙泉、太阿、纯钧、湛卢、鱼肠、巨阙等。春秋时的龙泉剑,仍有一只藏於故宫,至今仍很锋利,证明我国在剑的制造和使用上,有著很悠久的历史。
有关剑的资料
《初学记·武部·剑》:「其后楚有龙泉,秦有太阿、工 ,吴有干将、镆耶、属镂,越有纯钩、湛卢、豪曹、鱼肠、巨阙诸剑。」
《管子》曰:「昔葛天卢之山,发而出金,蚩尤受而制之,以为剑铠,此剑之始也。」
《吴越春秋·勾践阴谋外传》:「越王乃使使聘之,问以剑戟之术。处女将北见於王,道逢一翁,自称袁公,问於处女:『吾闻子善剑,愿一见之。』女曰:『妾不敢有所隐,惟公试之。』于是袁公即执林于竹,竹枝上颉桥未堕地,女即捷末,袁公则飞上树,变为白猿,遂别去。见越王,越王问曰:『夫剑之道则如之何?』女曰:『妾生深林之中,长於无人之野,无道不习。不达诸侯,窃好击之道,诵之不休。妾非受於人也,而忽自有之。』越王曰:『其道如何?』女曰:『其道甚微而易,其意甚幽而深。道有门户,亦有阴阳,开门闭户,阴衰阳兴。凡手战之道,内实精神,外示安仪,见之似好妇,夺之似惧虎。布形候气,与神俱往。杳之若日,偏如腾兔,追形逐影,光若彷佛。呼吸往来,不及法禁。纵横逆顺,直复不闻。斯道者,一人当百,百人当万。王欲试之,其验即见。』越王即加女号,号曰『越女』。」(其言妙契精微,深得剑术之要。所谓「门户阴阳」,即斗剑时进退纵横之法。而「内实精神,外示安仪」,则是描述斗剑时精神贯注,从容不迫,观变进招的形态。)
金庸更将此段传奇,写进了他的武侠小说《越女剑》中,将剑道的至高境界,作了非常深入的刻划与探讨。
在剑的演练中,一般分为「站剑」和「行剑」两种。「站剑」一般指动作迅速敏捷,静止动作沉稳,富雕塑性。而「行剑」则相对显得停顿较少,动作连续不断,均匀而有轫性。同时剑还有长穗、短穗之刀,穗又称穗袍,它的作用是舞动以惑敌,演练时显得龙飞凤舞,形象优美。尤其长穗,随剑飘舞,更显神妙。
练剑要求身与剑合,剑与神合。《绿水亭杂识四》中说:剑「锋锷如槊刃,而以身为之柄,微州目连猷人之身法,轻如猿鸟,即剑法也。」这里说的「以身为柄」,就是说以身领剑,这是练剑之要。
《吴越春秋·勾践伐吴外传》:「越王乃被唐夷之甲,带步光之剑,杖屈卢之矛,出死士以三百人为阵关下。」(《典略》:「周有屈卢之矛。」)
汉刘熙《释名·释兵》:「剑,检也,所以防检非常也;又敛也,以其在身拱时敛在臂内也。其旁鼻曰镡,镡,寻也,带所贯寻也。其末曰锋,锋末之言也。」
《战国策·韩策一》:「韩卒之剑戟,皆出於冥山、棠溪、墨阳、合膊。邓师、宛冯、龙渊、太阿,皆陆断马牛,水击鹄雁。」邓师,邓国有工铸剑,因名邓师。宛冯,宛人於冯池(荥阳)铸剑,故号。龙渊,河南西平有龙泉水,亦名龙渊,可以淬刀剑,特坚利,故名。太阿,《吴越春秋》:吴有干将,越有欧冶,
《吴越春秋·阖闾内传》:阖闾「请干将铸作名剑二枚。干将者,吴人也,与欧冶子同师,俱能为剑。越前来献三枚,阖闾得而宝之,以故使剑匠作为二枚,一曰干将,二曰莫耶。莫耶,干将之妻也。干将作剑,采五山之铁精,六合之金英。候天祠地,阴阳同光,百神临观,天气下降,而金铁之精不销沦流。……於是干将妻乃断发剪爪,投於炉中。使童女童男三百人鼓橐装,金铁乃濡,遂以成剑。阳曰干将,阴曰莫耶。阳怍龟文,阴作漫理。干将匿其阳,出其阴而献之。阖闾甚重。」
《吴越春秋·阖闾内传》:「湛卢之剑恶阖闾之无也,乃去而出,水行如楚。楚昭王而寤,得王湛卢之剑於床,昭王不知其故,乃召风胡子而问,……风胡子曰:『臣闻吴王得越所献宝剑三枚,一曰鱼肠,二曰磐郢,三曰湛卢。鱼肠之剑已用杀吴王僚也,磐郢以送其死女,今湛卢入楚也。……臣闻越王允常使欧冶子造剑五枚,以示薛烛,烛对曰:「鱼肠剑逆理不顺,不可服也,臣以杀君,子以杀父。」故阖闾以杀王僚。一名磐郢,亦曰豪曹,不法之物,无益於人,故以送死。一名湛卢,五金之英,太阳之精,寄气托灵,出之有神,服之有威,可以折冲拒敌。然人君有逆理之谋,其剑即出,故去无道以就有道。今吴王无道,杀君谋楚,故湛卢入楚。』」
《初学记·武部·剑》:赵晔《吴越春秋》曰:「越王允常聘欧冶子作剑五枚,三大二小,三曰豪曹。秦客薛烛善相剑,王取豪曹示之,薛烛曰:『实非宝剑也。今豪曹五色,黯然无华,已殒其光,亡其神,此剑不登斩而辱,则堕於饮中矣。』王曰:『寡人置剑卢竹上,过而坠之,断金兽之颈,饮濡其刃,以为利也。』」
《初学记·武部·剑》:《吴越春秋》又曰:「越王允常聘欧冶子作名剑五枚,一曰纯钩,二曰湛卢,三曰豪曹,四曰鱼肠,五曰巨阙。秦客薛烛善相剑,越王取豪曹、巨阙、鱼肠等示之,薛烛皆曰:『非宝剑也。』取纯钩示,薛烛曰:『光如屈阳之华,沉沉如芙蓉始生於湖,观其文如列星之行,观其光如水溢於塘,此纯钩也。』取湛卢示之,薛烛曰:『善哉!衔金铁之英,吐银锡之精,寄气托灵,有游出之神,服此剑,可以折冲伐敌,人君有逆谋则去之他国。』允常乃以湛卢献吴,吴公子光弑吴王僚,湛卢去如楚。」
《史记·苏秦列传》裴 《集解》引《吴越春秋:「楚王召风胡子而告之曰:『寡人闻吴有干将,越有欧冶,寡人欲因此请二人作剑,可乎?』风胡子曰:『可。』乃往见二人作剑,一曰龙渊,二曰太阿。」
《初学记·武部·剑》:《贾子》:古者天子二十而冠,带剑;诸侯三十而冠,带剑;大夫四十而冠,带剑;隶人不得冠,庶人有事得带剑,无事不得带剑。」
《初学记·武部·剑》:《春秋繁露》:「礼之所兴也,剑之在左,青龙象也;刀之在右,白虎象也。」
《周官》:「桃氏为剑,腊(两刃)广二寸有半寸,两从半之(剑脊两面杀趋锷者),以其腊广为之茎围,长倍之,中其茎,设其后,身长五其茎长,重九锊,谓之上制,上士服之。」
《孔子家语·好生》:「子路戎服见於孔子,拔剑而舞之,曰:『古之君子,固以剑自卫乎!』」
《庄子·说剑》:「赵文王喜剑,剑士夹门,而客三千余人,日夜相击於前,死伤者,岁百余人。」由此可见,当时剑术是作为主要武艺存在的。
《史记·项羽本纪》:「范增起,出召项庄,谓曰:『君王为人不忍,若入前为寿,寿毕,请以剑舞,因击沛公於坐,杀之。』……项庄拔剑起舞,项伯亦拔剑起舞,以身翼蔽沛公,庄不得击。」……张良曰:『今者项庄拔剑舞,其意常在沛公也。』」
《汉书·艺文志·兵书略》:《剑道》三十八篇。
剑的发展
汉代剑术已甚精备,斗剑中显示了武艺造诣的深浅。曹丕《典论·自叙》:「余又学击剑,阅师多矣,四方之法各异,唯京师为善。桓、灵之间,有虎贲王越善斯术,称於京师。河南史阿言昔与越游,具得其法,余从阿学精熟。尝与平虏将军刘勋、奋威将军邓展等共饮,宿闻展善有手臂,晓五兵,又称其能空手入白刃。余与论剑良久,谓将军非法也,余顾尝好之,又得善术,因求与余对。时酒酣耳热,方食芊蔗,便以为杖,下殿数交,三中其臂,左右大笑。展意不平,庋更为之。余言吾法急属,难相中面,故齐臂耳。展言愿复一交,余知其欲突以取交中也,因伪深进,展果寻前,余却脚,正截其颡,坐中惊视。余还坐,笑曰:『昔阳庆使淳于意去其故方,更授以秘术,今余亦愿邓将军捐弃故技,更受要道也。』一坐尽欢。」(《三国志·魏书·文帝纪》裴松注引)这段有声有色的记载,反映了当时剑术的高超和斗剑风的兴盛。
杨泉《物理论》:「阮师之作刀,受法於金精之灵,七月庚辛,见神於冶监之门,向西再拜,金神教以水火之齐,五精之链,用阴阳之候,取刚柔之和,三年作刀千七百七十口,其刀背夹刃,方口洪首,截轻微不绝丝发之系,斫坚刚无变动之异。」
但自唐开始,士大夫心理充满道教神仙妖邪鬼怪之说,剑乃变为镇邪凶之器,一若此数尺刚铁,铸成剑形,即具有无上魔力者。于是家悬一剑,即以为祥,不习剑术,而以为剑自可以御敌而胜。所以自唐以后,剑类短兵,有一支为释道所利用,而引入歧途。
从征军士多用刀而鲜用剑,佩刀者渐多於佩剑者,这显然对剑术的发展有相当的阻作用。
舞剑在唐代兴盛起来,杜甫<舞剑器行>描述公孙大娘舞剑绝技:「昔有佳人公孙氏,一舞剑器动四方。观者如山色沮丧,天地为之久低昂。
如羿射九日落,矫如群帝骖龙翔;来如江海凝清光。」剑的声光,似闻如见,精湛技艺,如呈眼前。
明唐顺之《武编》说:宋太宗「选诸军勇士数百人,教以舞剑,皆能掷剑空中,跃其身左右承之,妙绝无比。会北戎遗使修贡,赐宴便殿,因出剑士示之,袒裼鼓澡,挥刃而入,跳掷承接,霜锋雪刃,飞舞满空。」这些高超绝技,对后来剑术套路及表演技艺的发展,影响很大,至今我们演练的武术套路中,亦有所见。
金庸《笑傲江湖》中的「冲灵剑法」,就是惊绝的特技。
明代各武术流派,在剑术应用的基础上,创造了不少珍贵的剑法,如何良臣《阵纪》所云:「卞庄子之纷绞法,王聚之起落法,刘先生之愿应法,马明王之闪电法,马起之出手法」等,这些剑法为后世剑术的发展,提供了有益的素材。
明代各武术流派,在剑术应用的基础上,创造了不少珍贵的剑法,如何良臣《阵纪》所云:「卞庄子之纷绞法,王聚之起落法,刘先生之愿应法,马明王之闪电法,马起之出手法」等,这些剑法为后世剑术的发展,提供了有益的素材。
剑的招式是以劈、砍、崩、撩、格、洗、截、刺、搅、压、挂、云等为主。它的特点是刚柔相济、吞吐自如,飘洒轻快,矫健优美,正如拳谚所形容的「剑似飞凤」,由此可知其妙。
剑的各部位包括有:剑身、剑尖、剑锋、剑末、剑脊、剑刃、剑格、剑柄、剑首、剑鞘和穗。
名词解释:
剑墩:即剑首。指剑柄的顶部,一般剑首中有孔,可穿绳。
剑镡:即剑格,亦称护手。指剑身与剑柄之间作为护手的椭圆形盘部分。
剑鞘:又我剑匣、剑室。藏剑之物。有铁和木制等,裹以沙鱼皮,涂以朱漆或连云黑漆,又贵者并镶珠嵌宝。
剑茎:剑柄之古称。清·程瑶曰《考工创物水记·桃氏为剑考》:“茎者,言颈也,在首下。”
剑室:即剑鞘。汉·扬雄《方言》:“剑鞘自河而北,燕、赵之间,谓之室。”
剑廓:剑梢的别称。汉·扬《方言》:“剑梢自关而东或谓之廓”。
剑珥:即剑格。又名剑镡。《庄子·说剑篇》释文引司马云:“镡,剑珥也。”
剑穗:剑柄后缚的装饰品。近现代剑术套路有长穗与短穗之分别。
剑袍:即剑穗。有文武之说,文剑佩带剑袍,武剑则无。
剑术的套路有:七星剑、青萍剑、昆仑剑、八卦剑、武当剑、达摩剑、三才剑、盘龙剑、蛾嵋剑、八仙剑、醉剑、对练剑等。
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uio899
回答了这个问题 | 09-07-21
The evolution of the renminbi exchange rate system course
Before 1994, China has gone through a fixed exchange rate system and the double-track exchange rate system. Unified exchange rate since 1994, our country is based on market supply and demand, managed floating exchange rate system, enterprises and individuals in accordance with the provisions of the sale of foreign exchange to banks, the banks into the interbank foreign exchange market transactions, the formation of the market exchange rate. The central bank set the scope of a certain degree of exchange rate fluctuations and the market through regulation and control to maintain stability of RMB exchange rate. Before 1997, the RMB exchange rate steadily, the South East Asian financial crisis, narrowed the floating scope of the RMB exchange rate, in fact, is pegged to the dollar to implement a fixed exchange rate system. Can be seen from Table 1, in 25 years the overall exchange rate of RMB against the U.S. dollar has gone through a continuous process of depreciation, by 1981, one U.S. dollar to 1.70 yuan exchange rate reform in 1994, one U.S. dollar at the time of 8.61 yuan, a slight increase in subsequent years, and basically stable since 1997 at 8.27 yuan against one U.S. dollars level.
(A) the reform of RMB exchange rate system analysis
In 1994, China implemented based on market supply and demand, managed floating exchange rate system, in fact, in 1997, is pegged to the U.S. dollar after the exchange rate system. At that time, the exchange rate regime in line with the national conditions of China, for China's sustained and rapid economic development and safeguard regional and world economic and financial stability to make a positive contribution. However, the year 2000, with domestic and international economic and financial situation changes, the original exchange rate system also revealed a number of drawbacks.
1. The international payment imbalance problem
Since the beginning of 2000, China's current account, capital account the "double surplus" was the trend of expansion is particularly evident in 2004. This has two main reasons: First, the external constant dollar depreciation in recent years, due to the yuan pegged to the U.S. dollar, and it will follow the depreciation of relatively rapid economic growth in China, there is a certain extent, the renminbi undervalued. To some extent, enhanced exports of goods and services in our country's competitiveness and expanding current account surplus; Second, the expected appreciation of the RMB to China's increasing foreign investment, especially to a large number of short-term capital flows, so that China's financial capital Rapid expansion of the project surplus. China's international revenue and expenditure items in expanding the "double surplus", China's increased trade with other countries of friction, especially in the United States and Europe, often to provoke a trade war in China.
2. Challenged the independence of monetary policy
Year after year by China's international balance of payments surplus, China's foreign exchange reserves at an extremely rapid growth in recent years, only an increase of 2004 on the 206.7 billion U.S. dollars, an increase of nearly 50% to the end of June 2005, China's foreign exchange reserve has reached 711 billion U.S. million. Foreign exchange reserves caused by the rapid growth of China's rapid increase in money supply in 2004, inflationary pressures have emerged. In order to curb excessive domestic credit, in some industries and regions, blind investment and redundant construction of the phenomenon seriously, People's Bank of China to take on the open market the practice of hedging foreign exchange, hedge ever higher, resulting in "no tickets available" the situation can only continue to scroll through the issuance of central bank bills to return the funds, making China's monetary policy independence and effectiveness of the challenges are great.
3. The influx of international hot money
China since 1997 in fact pegged to the U.S. dollar's exchange rate system, in promoting exports and attracting foreign investment of China's development, but also to the international hot money has left opportunities for the invasion. Over the past decade, China's sustained and rapid economic development and China's increasing foreign exchange reserves, the international community on China's revaluation of the renminbi is expected to increase, through various channels of international speculators poured into China, the appreciation of the renminbi gamble. The influx of a large number of hot money, to a large extent against the stability of China's financial system, reducing the effectiveness of monetary policy, increase the financial risks in China, is not conducive to the development of macroeconomic stability. Therefore, in order to further strengthen China's economic and financial stability of the yuan pegged to the U.S. dollar needs to reform the system.
(B) the reform of RMB exchange rate system timing analysis
Although since 2003, has repeatedly put pressure on Europe and the United States to force revaluation of the RMB, but the Chinese government resisted the pressure to maintain the RMB exchange rate stability. RMB appreciation in the current circumstances is expected to reduce the adjusted exchange rate system, has played a surprise effect, is relatively scientific.
1. Analysis of the domestic conditions
From the actual situation, the conditions of the RMB exchange rate adjustment is relatively mature. First of all, China's national economy maintained steady and rapid growth momentum in 2004 the GDP growth rate of 9.5% in first half of this year remained 9.5% increase for the RMB exchange rate system reform has laid a solid economic base. Secondly, after more than a year of focus on regulation and control, China's economic macro-control received good results, the original domestic overheating fixed assets investment in the state of relatively stable, inflation control has been very good first half of this year the consumer price level level fell to 2.3 percent; Third, the rapid development of China's foreign exchange markets significantly the effectiveness of financial reform, such as the gradual relaxation of foreign exchange management, foreign exchange market has constantly been enhanced gradually extend the market tools, the financial reform has made substantial progress. This reform of the RMB exchange rate system has created the normal operation of market conditions.
2. Analysis of international conditions
The reform of RMB exchange rate system the same international conditions mature. The recent U.S. economic growth continued to accelerate and the Fed raising interest rates, started in 2001 and the recent trend of weak dollar strong. From the beginning of January this year, the U.S. dollar against the euro, the yen exchange rate began to rise significantly. As a result of the RMB exchange rate pegged to the dollar, the yuan currency to non-US dollar exchange rate was strong, the appreciation of the renminbi is expected to reduce the appreciation pressure. This reform of the RMB exchange rate forming mechanism to create favorable external conditions, easing the reform of RMB exchange rate system brought about by external shocks.
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Research on the current exchange rate system and a correct understanding of the RMB exchange rate fluctuations
RMB exchange rate system reform and its impact analysis
(A) the content of the RMB exchange rate reform of the system read
The reform of RMB exchange rate system the main content is to the people人民币汇率制度的演进历程
1994年以前,我国先后经历了固定汇率制度和双轨汇率制度。1994年汇率并轨以后,我国实行以市场供求为基础的、有管理的浮动汇率制度,企业和个人按规定向银行买卖外汇,银行进入银行间外汇市场进行交易,形成市场汇率。中央银行设定一定的汇率浮动范围,并通过调控市场保持人民币汇率稳定。1997年以前,人民币汇率稳中有升,东南亚洲金融危机爆发后,人民币汇率浮动区间收窄,实际上实行的是钉住美元的固定汇率制度。从表1可见,25年来人民币对美元汇率总体经历了一个不断贬值的过程,由1981年一美元兑1.70元人民币到1994年汇率改革时的一美元兑8.61元人民币,随后几年略有上升,而1997年以来基本稳定在1美元兑8.27人民币水平。
(一)人民币汇率制度改革的原因分析
我国在1994年开始实施的以市场供求为基础的、有管理的浮动汇率制度,事实上是在1997年之后是以盯住美元的汇率制度。该汇率制度符合当时我国的国情,为我国经济的持续快速发展,维护地区乃至世界经济金融的稳定做出了积极贡献。但是,进入2000年以后,随着国内外经济金融形势的变化,原有汇率制度也暴露出了一些弊端。
1.国际收支失衡问题严重
进入2000年以来,我国经常项目、资本项目“双顺差”呈扩大的趋势,2004年尤其明显。这主要有两方面原因:一是近年来美元不断对外贬值,由于人民币盯住美元,于是也跟着贬值,相对我国经济的高速增长,人民币存在一定程度上的低估。这在一定程度上增强了我国商品和服务出口的竞争力,使经常项目顺差不断扩大;二是人民币升值的预期加大了外商对我国的投资,尤其是促使大量短期资金流入,使我国资本金融项目顺差快速扩大。我国国际收支项目中不断扩大的“双顺差”,加剧了我国跟其他国家的贸易摩擦,尤其是美国与欧洲,屡屡对中国挑起贸易之战。
2.货币政策独立性受到挑战
受我国国际收支连年顺差的影响,我国外汇储备在近几年增长极其迅速,仅2004年就增长了2067亿美元,增幅达到近50%,至2005年6月底,我国外汇储备已高达7110亿美元。外汇储备的高速增长造成了我国货币投放的过快增加,2004年出现了通货膨胀的压力。为了抑制国内信贷投放过猛、部分行业和地区盲目投资和重复建设严重的现象,中国人民银行不得不采取在公开市场上对冲外汇占款的做法,对冲比率不断提高,以至出现“无券可用”的情况,只能通过不断滚动增发央行票据来回笼资金,使得我国货币政策的独立性和有效性受到很大的挑战。
3.国际热钱大量涌入
1997年以来的我国实质上的盯住美元汇率制,在促进我国出口和吸引外资发展的同时,也给国际热钱入侵留下了可乘之机。近十年来,我国经济的持续快速发展和我国外汇储备的不断增大,国际上对我国人民币的升值预期不断上升,国际炒家通过各种途径大举进入我国,豪赌人民币升值。大量热钱的涌入,在很大程度上危害了我国金融体系的稳定,降低了货币政策的有效性,加大了我国的金融风险,不利于宏观经济的稳定发展。因此,为了进一步加强我国经济金融稳定性,需要对人民币盯住美元的制度进行改革。
(二)人民币汇率制度改革的时机选择分析
尽管2003年以来,欧美各国屡屡施压,迫使人民币升值,但是中国政府顶住了压力,保持了人民币汇率的稳定。在当前人民币升值预期降低情况下进行汇率制度调整,起到了出其不意的效果,是相对比较科学的。
1.国内条件分析
从国内实际情况来看,人民币汇率调整的条件是相对成熟的。首先,我国国民经济继续保持平稳快速增长势头,2004年的GDP增长率高达9.5%,今年上半年仍然保持了9.5%的增幅,这为人民币汇率制度改革奠定了扎实的经济基础。其次,经过一年多的着力调控,我国经济宏观调控收到很好的效果,原先过热的国内固定资产投资进入相对稳健的状态,通货膨胀得到了很好的控制,今年上半年居民消费物价水平降到了2.3%水平;第三,我国外汇市场发展迅速金融改革成效显著,如外汇管理逐步放宽,外汇市场建设不断加强,市场工具逐步推广,各项金融改革取得了实质性进展。这为人民币汇率制度改革后的正常运行创造了市场条件。
2.国际条件分析
人民币汇率制度改革的国际条件同样趋于成熟。近来由于美国经济增长加快和美联储的持续加息,从2001年开始的弱势美元最近走向强势。从今年1月份开始,美元对欧元、日元汇率开始大幅度升值。由于人民币汇率与美元挂钩,人民币对非美元货币的汇率也随即走强,人民币升值预期降低,升值压力减轻。这为人民币汇率形成机制改革创造了有利的外部条件,缓解了人民币汇率制度改革带来的外部冲击。
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研究现行汇率制度及正确认识人民币汇率的波动
人民币汇率制度改革内容及其影响分析
(一)人民币汇率制度改革内容解读
这次人民币汇率制度改革的主要内容,是将人民币汇率盯住美元改为参考一篮子货币。即人民币汇率不再盯住单一美元,而是按照我国对外经济发展的实际情况,选择若干种主要货币,赋予相应的权重,组成一个货币篮子。同时,根据国内外经济金融形势,以市场供求为基础,参考一篮子货币计算人民币多边汇率指数的变化,对人民币汇率进行管理和调节,维护人民币汇率在合理均衡水平上的基本稳定。参考一篮子表明外币之间的汇率变化会影响人民币汇率,但参考一篮子不等于盯住一篮子货币,它还需要将市场供求关系作为另一重要依据,据此形成有管理的浮动汇率。这一改革特点集中体现了我国政府在人民币汇率制度改革所主张的“主动性”和“可控性”原则,既有利于政府对汇率制度灵活操作,又不至于引发汇率的过大波动。
这次改革的又一重要内容,是对人民币兑美元的汇率水平进行小幅调整,人民币对美元升值2%,由1美元兑8.27元人民币调整为1美元兑8.11元人民币。这一调整幅度主要是根据我国贸易顺差程度和结构调整的需要来确定的,同时也考虑了国内企业进行结构调整的适应能力。与上个世纪80年代“广场协议”后日本日元对美元升值将近一倍相比,我国政府顶住国际压力,对进行人民币小幅升值,有利于我国经济金融稳定与持续发展。这一特点集中反映了我国政府在人民币汇制改革中的“主动性”和“渐进性”原则。
(二)人民币汇率小幅升值的影响分析
这次人民币汇率小幅升值,会对我国经济产生利弊兼有的影响,但总体而言是利大于弊。
人民币升值的主要好处有:一是人民币升值可以在一定程度上降低我国企业进口成本;二是人民币升值可以改善我国的贸易条件。近年来,我国出口商品基本上处于薄利多销的状况,出口利润的增长远低于出口量的增长,实际资源转移速度加快,这对我国经济的可持续发展是不利的。人民币升值后,出口商的人民币收入相应减少,为了保持原有的利润水平,其或是提高出口商品的国外售价,或是减少低附加值商品的出口量,从而使贸易条件得到改善。三是有利于减少国际贸易磨擦。近年来,国外对我国出口商品的反倾销及其它贸易争端不断加剧,商品出口的国际环境恶化,人民币升值使中国商品国外销售价格提高,会在一定程度上缓解这种状况;四是有利于我国产业结构的调整。一方面,人民币升值降低了我国企业进口先进技术、设备的成本,有利于出口企业尤其是民营企业的技术升级。另一方面,人民币升值压缩了我国出口商品的利润空间,促使企业减少低附加值商品的出口,增加高技术含量、高附加值商品的出口;五是人民币升值有利于我国企业的跨国投资活动。人民币升值节省了我国企业对外投资的成本,使得国内企业更容易“走出去”;六是可以减缓我国外汇储备的增长速度,从而减少由外汇储备过快增长而带来的一系列负面影响。
人民币升值的不利之处有:一是会在一定程度上对我国出口贸易起到抑制作用。作为发展中国家,我国出口的商品在很大程度上靠价格取胜,人民币升值削弱了很多商品出口的价格竞争优势,从而影响我国出口商品在国际市场上的竞争力;二是出口的抑制又会加大就业压力。我国出口企业主要是劳动密集型企业,吸纳了众多的劳动力就业。人民币升值对劳动密集型企业的影响远大于对资本密集或技术密集型企业的影响,一旦劳动密集型产品出口增速放缓,势必造成就业压力;三是人民币升值会在一定程度上减缓外商来华投资的增长速度,因为人民币升值虽然会使已在华外资企业的资产增值,但却会使准备前来中国投资的外商的投资成本增大。四是人民币升值为已流入中国的国际游资提供了获利机会,并有可能增强国际游资对人民币继续升值的预期,从而加剧国际游资的非正常流动。
综上所述,这次人民币汇率制度改革增大了我国汇率制度的弹性,更适合我国市场经济发展的需要。虽然由于人民币的小幅升值,短期内会引起我国进出口商品价格和贸易量的波动,但从长期来看,有利于我国市场经济体系的完善,有利于我国产业结构和进出口商品结构的调整,从而有利于我国对外贸易与整体经济的可持续发展。
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现行汇率制度对我国货币市场影响
一、改革前汇率制度对我国货币政策的制约
从1994年我国外汇管理体制改革到这次汇率制度改革之间,人民币汇率虽然名义上是有管理的浮动汇率制度,但实际上却是一种盯住美元的固定汇率。从蒙代尔—弗莱明模型出发,在资本趋于自由流动的过程中,货币政策只有同浮动汇率相配合,才能真正体现其有效性,在固定汇率制度下,货币政策仅在短期内有效,从长期来看无效。近年来,随着我国经济实力的不断增强,对外开放程度的不断提高,固定汇率制度的安排与我国货币政策之间的冲突日益明显。特别是在此轮经济过热中,我国政府出台了一系列宏观调控政策对国民经济进行干预,其中主要运用了货币政策,货币政策从几年前的“稳健”逐步转向“适度从紧”。但是由于我国国民经济连续多年的快速增长和美元的持续走低等原因,使得人民币币值被低估,币值的低估严重制约了货币政策的实施效果。
(一)货币政策独立性降低
在开放经济中,存在国际资本自由流动、汇率稳定和货币政策独立性这三个目标不可能同时实现的矛盾,即“三元悖论”。此次汇率制度改革之前,我国选择的是固定汇率与货币政策独立性,对国际资本流动实施较为严格的控制。在一国金融体系尚未完善,抗金融风险能力较弱的情况下,这种制度安排无疑是符合中国当时的经济实际。然而,随着我国加入WTO,在开放经济的大趋势下,伴随着金融全球化、一体化程度的逐步提高,国内金融市场对外开放程度的逐渐加强,合法和违规的资本大量涌入,致使货币政策的独立性在我国无法实现。事实上,在此轮经济过热的治理过程中,我国政府虽然稳定了人民币汇率,但却是以丧失货币政策的独立性为代价,对通货膨胀的控制更多的依赖于行政手段,而不是货币政策。
(二)外汇储备的激增对货币政策有效性和主动性提出挑战
外汇储备的增加主要源自于贸易顺差和“热钱”流动。由于人民币币值被低估,持续扩大的贸易顺差和国外“热钱”的蜂拥而至引起了我国外汇储备的激增。今年上半年,我国出口为3423.4亿美元,进口为3026.9亿美元,贸易顺差达到396.5亿美元,而去年同期则是68亿美元的逆差。截止到6月末,国家外汇储备余额为7110亿美元,同比增长51.1%;上半年外汇储备增加1010亿美元,同比多增337亿美元,其中仅6月份外汇储备就增加200亿美元,同比多增80亿美元。外汇储备的激增会导致货币供给的增加,加大通货膨胀压力。为了缓解外汇储备增长而带来的通货膨胀压力,央行不得不加大力度进行冲销操作来阻止货币供给的增加,但这又会造成信贷收缩,进而增大人民币利率上升的压力,反过来又迫使央行买入外汇储备,最终增加货币供给,导致央行试图改变货币供给的努力会大打折扣。上半年,我国出现了“宽货币、紧信贷”的局面,在信贷收缩的情况下,广义货币供应量(M2, M2由国内信贷和外汇占款组成)仍然大幅增加,这说明央行货币政策的中介目标受到了外汇储备的干扰,大大影响了货币政策的调控效果,其有效性面临严峻挑战。
(三)利率工具的运用受到约束
在我国,由于固定汇率原因,利率政策手段的效果十分有限,再加之国际社会和金融市场对人民币升值的强烈预期,使得利率工具的运用受到约束:
1、在固定汇率制度下,当我国上调(下调)利率进行紧缩(扩张)调控时,会导致资本项目的顺差(逆差)。为了稳定汇率,央行在外汇市场上买入(卖出)外汇,从而增加(减少)了外汇储备,进一步影响到基础货币的投放,在一定程度上抵消了利率政策的效果。
2、升值预期和跟随美元的贬值导致我国出现大量贸易顺差。在正常的经济环境下,我国可以通过降低利率水平促使国内资金和国外短期资金外流,达到解决国际收支失衡的目的。但是,由于我国经济过热还未得到彻底解决,存在通货膨胀压力,降低利率有悖于宏观调控的方向,以至于利率工具的运用面临尴尬。
3、由于人民币升值预期的存在,如果大幅提高利率会吸引更多的境外资金流入国内,增加外汇储备,从而进一步增大升值压力。正是由于利率无法较大提高,且国内物价水平较高,致使我国实际利率水平较低甚至出现负利率现象。在国内金融投资品种比较少的情况下,股票市场又是持续低迷,于是各路资金追逐投资,尤其是房地产,使得固定资产投资增幅长期处于高位运行。
(四)“热钱”流动降低货币政策有效性
随着人民币升值预期的不断加剧,大量“热钱”通过各种合法及非法渠道涌入中国。“热钱”的流动主要从以下几个方面影响我国货币政策的执行:首先,“热钱”的流入增加了外汇储备,加大通货膨胀压力,从而削弱了适度从紧货币政策的力度;其次,“热钱”具有高度流动性和不稳定性,它的快速流入流出会对我国金融系统造成巨大冲击,因而加大了央行运用货币政策工具进行调控的难度;最后,在我国股市持续低迷的情况下,势必有大量“热钱”进入房地产市场,这将直接影响我国政府对房地产行业调控的效果。
二、汇率制度改革增强了货币政策有效性
此次完善人民币汇率形成机制的改革,改变了汇率过于固定的状况,形成以市场供求为基础、参考一篮子货币进行调节、有管理的浮动汇率制度,这种汇率制度使得人民币汇率更具灵活性,增强了我国货币政策的有效性。
第一,在“三元悖论”中,此次汇率制度改革使我国的汇率波动区间变宽,意味着我国在资本自由流动程度逐渐提高的背景下,通过放弃汇率稳定的目标而增加货币政策的独立性。在参考一篮子货币进行调节、有管理的浮动汇率制度下,我国可以独立的行使自己的货币政策,通过汇率杠杆对国际收支进行自动调节,改变了在固定汇率制度下因受多种因素牵制而被动行使货币政策的局面。
第二,汇率制度改革以后,人民币汇率可以根据市场供求状况,不断地进行微幅调整以平衡国际收支,使中央银行的外汇干预有一定的调控空间,摆脱了为稳定汇率而在外汇市场上买入(卖出)外汇,从而被动的增加(减少)基础货币投放的困境,提高了我国货币政策的主动性。目前,人民币的小幅升值,那么出口将会适度减少而进口增加,这样可以消化一定数量过剩的外汇储备,对于提高下一阶段我国货币政策的效力有很大帮助。
第三,浮动汇率制下,调解利率对国际收支产生的影响,可以通过汇率波动来进行反向平衡,从而增加利率政策的有效性。例如,当我国采取紧缩的货币政策,上调利率虽然会造成资本项目的顺差而增加外汇储备,但同时可以通过人民币升值影响经常项目,抵消资本项目的顺差,从而平衡国际收支,提高了利率政策的有效性。
第四,灵活的汇率可以增加国际投机资本的投机风险,减少了国外“热钱”的涌入,从而在一定程度上缓解了外汇储备过快增长的压力,降低了投机资本对我国经济的冲击。
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在现行汇率制度下如何防范金融风险,制定投资计划
目前,我国经济增长的内在动力依然强劲,上半年GDP保持了9.5%的同比增长,CPI上涨2.3%,全社会固定资产投资增速为25.4%,其中房地产开发投资增长23.5%,成为固定资产投资保持高位增长的主要原因。虽然银行信贷在上半年偏紧,但基础货币的增长迟早将转化为银行贷款的增加,如果货币供应继续宽松,商业银行释放贷款的能力将迅速恢复;同时,国际原油和主要原材料价格快速上涨造成的对下游产品涨价的压力,这将在一定程度上阻止投资增速下降和粮食供给增加等因素导致的物价涨幅回落。由此可见,我国经济所面临的通货膨胀压力依然较大。
本次人民币升值2%,对我国经济来说是一项紧缩的货币政策,因此,在一定程度上缓解了上述的通货膨胀压力。鉴于此,短期内我国的货币政策应以 “稳健”为主基调,综合运用各种货币政策工具,对国民经济进行微调,在保持或促进经济和物价稳定、改善和升级中国经济结构、转变中国经济增长方式等方面发挥重要作用。具体来说,包括以下几个方面:
第一,短期内不宜对利率水平进行调整,以免引起宏观经济的波动。但可以从利率结构下手,达到调控我国国民经济的目的。这一思想已在上半年央行的工作中有所体现。接下来我国政府应继续贯彻这一思想,适当调高短期利率,以抑制投资过热和投机资金的流入;同时维持中长期利率的稳定,保持经济的持续增长。
第二,在信贷方面,综合运用货币政策工具,引导商业银行有针对性地增加信贷的投放,改变上半年信贷偏紧的局面:
1、继续严格控制投资过热行业的资金供给,谨防物价反弹,稳定国民经济;同时,对于资源能源消耗和高污染行业也要在信贷资金方面进行抑制,优化我国经济结构。
2、对于有成长性、可持续发展性的行业给予充分的资金支持,重点是解决中小企业融资难问题,不仅符合我国经济结构改革的需要,而且可以降低优质企业对外债的依赖程度,从而减轻由于外汇储备增多所带来的基础货币被动投放的压力。
第三,目前,在推动经济增长的“三驾马车”中,投资下来了,净出口拉动力也会因升值而随之减弱,那么,推动经济持续增长的重任就落在消费身上。房地产是国民经济发展的支柱,在扩大内需,转变经济增长方式的背景下,房地产市场应该承担培育消费动力的重要责任。此前,我国货币政策主要针对房地产行业过度投资和投机性炒房进行调控,对房地产市场进行结构调整,从当前的结果来看,在过度投资和投机性炒房得到初步遏制的同时,个人住房消费也受到了打击。所以,下一阶段货币政策工作应在继续对投资型住房实行严格控制的基础上,给予自住型住房适当的支持,达到刺激内需的目的。
另外,本次汇率制度改革,对我国房地产市场的影响较为复杂,一方面,由于升值幅度较小,国外投机资金预期人民币将有一个升值周期,于是大举进入我国,主要是房地产市场;另一方面,一些投机资金会获利了结,撤除房地产市场。在综合影响很难确定的情况下,中央银行应密切跟踪房地产市场的变化,随时采取适当的货币政策来熨平国际资本流动给房地产市场造成的波动,以促进我国房地产行业的健康发展。
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台湾桃园青帮龙长禄个人事件报道
uio899
回答了这个问题 | 09-07-21
Taiwan to help the mysterious Green'319 'style to shake hands with the first exposure
(Singapore), Shin Min Daily News (Syndicated news) Hongmen like Taiwan and the color blue has a mysterious gang, the day before yesterday to help with the gathering of initial public ceremony, Green helped more than 20 disciples, including 'net ear', 'led to justice', 'gesture' the ceremony, which attracted most curiosity was the symbol of tradition and solidarity to justice and Green led the disciples to help each other to identify the 'March 19' to shake hands with potential.
Chinese Qing Huang Cheng-jen, chairman of the Association pointed out that green to help his disciples to shake hands with the people, the index must be within the buckle, thumb Microbend, more than three fingers extended, commonly known as signal 319, in memory of the early March 19 of the Ming dynasty hanging Chongzhen emperor.
Green to help with the ceremony to help start the most important thing is bidet to wash towels, gargle with water, expressed respect for the ceremony, and then tablets祖师爷is welcome to the traditional red string tied古钱'lead rope' ceremony, a symbol of the heart Bangzhong together and help with the traditional green of the 319 sign.
However, despite the green light to help the first time, but to participate in a very low-key Bangzhong, only 20 people at the scene.台湾神秘青帮‘319’式握手首次曝光
(新加坡)新明日报 (综合电)台湾与洪门一样有着神秘色彩的青帮,前天首次公开帮内聚会仪式,20多名青帮弟子,进行包括‘净耳’、‘牵绳’、‘手势’等仪式,其中最引人好奇的是,象征传承与团结的牵绳和青帮弟子互相辨识的‘三一九’握手势。
中华安清协会会长黄诚仁指出,青帮弟子在与人握手时,食指必须内扣、拇指微弯,余三指伸直,俗称三一九手势,早期是为纪念3月19日自缢的明朝崇祯皇帝。
青帮的帮内仪式中一开始最重要的就是净身,以毛巾洗脸、以水漱口,表示对仪式的尊重,再来就是迎祖师爷牌位,以红绳绑上古钱的传统‘牵绳’仪式,象征帮众的心团结一起,并配上传统青帮的三一九手势。
不过,虽然青帮首次对外曝光,但参加帮众都十分低调,现场只有20多人。
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如何看待中国各阶级拯救中国
uio899
回答了这个问题 | 09-07-21
1, the Westernization Movement: Objective: To safeguard the rule of the Qing Dynasty by the landlord class of self-help movement
Results: The failure of a lesson: the feudal reform will not work in China.
2, the Reform Movement. The results of the national salvation movement the bourgeoisie: the failure of a lesson: the way to constitutional monarchy does not work in China.
3, the results of the Revolution the bourgeois revolution: the failure of
Lessons: capitalism does not work in China1、洋务运动:目的:维护清朝统治 地主阶级的自救运动
结果:失败 教训:封建改革的方法在 中国行不通。
2、戊戌变法。资产阶级的救亡运动 结果:失败 教训:君主立宪制的方法在中国行不通。
3、辛亥革命 资产阶级的革命 结果:失败
教训:资本主义在中国行不通
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韩国历史上真实的的善德
uio899
回答了这个问题 | 09-07-21
Shande Queen (Korean: 선덕 여왕,? -647 Years); surname Kim of Goldman, St No. Huanggu, Luo is a new section 27 on behalf of the monarchy, character and subtlety lenient. Zhen Wang eldest daughter, Princess摩耶夫mother who's (GE Jinfu Katsunosuke female). In St. royal bone men who died under the heir to the throne.
The first year (Tang Zhenguan six years) ascended the throne, B Festival colonial imperial clan. Hui-Ping改元day three or four years (nine years Zhenguan Don) King持节List envoy for life Zhuguo Queen, Prince closed wave music, the new King. Silla in April nine years to send children to the Tang, please Guoxue, May Tang亲征Gaogouli years, the Queen's 30,000 troops to help. Sixteen years adjoin the first month the Minister Tan, Lian conspiracy cases, fortunately did not succeed, but at this time the Queen has died, sixteen years in office, Ik Shande, no heir, by the cousin Wang Tak-bit true.善德女王(韓文:선덕여왕,?-647年);姓金名德曼,號聖祖皇姑,是新羅國的第27代君主,性格寬仁明敏。真平王長女,母親為王妃摩耶夫人金氏(葛文王金福勝之女)。在聖骨出身的王族男子都過世的情況下繼承王位。
元年(唐貞觀六年)即位,宗室乙祭輔政。三年正月改元仁平,四年(唐貞觀九年)太宗遣使持節冊命女王為柱國,封樂浪郡王、新羅王。九年四月派遣新羅子弟於唐請入國學,十四年五月唐太宗親征高句麗,女王發兵三萬以助。十六年正月大臣毗曇、廉宗謀反,幸運的是並未成功,不過女王卻在此時過世,在位十六年,諡善德,無嗣子,由堂妹真德王繼位。
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毛泽东两次出访苏联的异同
uio899
回答了这个问题 | 09-07-21
October 1, 1949, after the founding ceremony of New China, only two hours, the Soviet government recognized the People's Republic of China issued the message on to the Zhongnanhai. The next day, the Soviet Union with the KMT government to sever diplomatic relations, became the first establishment of diplomatic relations between New China and the countries, which also brought more than ten countries in Europe and Asia recognized by China.
Two months later, the decision of New China, Chairman Mao Zedong visited Moscow. The purpose of his visit was mainly to discuss the abolition of inequality in the Soviet Union of the Old Testament, New Testament signed; seek Soviet economic and technical assistance; 70 birthday at the same time to congratulate Stalin. The visit, the Communist Party and the People's Republic of China's top leaders of the first official visit. People within the walls as early as one month before the start of Mao Zedong on the busy travel opened.
Mission to the Sudan when the delegation of local officials Shen Kim Sum
From the General Logistics Department, I have kept the Americans pay to鸭绒被, a person 1, a roll, each person has engaged in a pair of big boots.
Chairman Mao Zedong when defender李家骥
Premier Zhou Enlai and Chairman Mao Luo recommended to keep pace with the international courtesy, to tell him to do black, black dress, black shoes, even socks are also black. Chairman asked: how are so complicated? I do not the black. Chairman of the temper because he said even if the Prime Minister on the work, or have to wear, especially in our country as the President of the first visit to the Soviet Union in his capacity as such, we must adapt and diplomatic etiquette. The Chairman explained that a Prime Minister, the President said: Well. On a set of black, so a set of ashes. He is like the gray.
In Mao Zedong's luggage, the maximum is the most important book.
Chairman Mao Zedong when defender李家骥
Comrade田家英prepared a bibliography, called the President of reading, we prepare. What is there, "Mirror" and what "Historical Records", the "Complete Works of Lu Xun", as well as the Soviet Union Tolstoy, Gorky, etc. box installed two books.
Translation of the original group in the Office of Yan Mingfu
Stalin is just 70 birthday, Stalin prepared to give some gifts, I heard the decision of Chairman Mao himself. Send a gift of two cars, a lot can be said. Shandong, one of the green wagon, a wagon is tangerine Jiangxi. So why do green Chairman Mao to send? I think the President was everything he would like to have very thoughtful, there must be a very profound meaning in it. Like a number of years later, I heard someone talking about a joke, saying that China fight, you give him to eat green onions do not hit right away. I think that, because the times they are of course the Communist International has done a lot of work to help the Chinese Communist Party, but also the Stalin era has done a lot of things detrimental to the Chinese revolution, the Wang Ming line imposed on us and so on. Between the two sides with the words of Chairman Mao, the stomach is always a gas. Well, I thought he would like to use green onions to cool down in this way, and after the construction of socialism in our time no longer angry.
In view of various considerations, the current visit to Mao Zedong, the dissemination of information by the CPC Central Committee did not.
Record at the Central Public Information film studio photographer Xu Xiaobing
Hou Bo met she was chief photographer, she knew the President to go to Moscow, and the two guards on the car along with the President of the train station went on. Beijing is probably snow at that time, and the President of the train are very strict, and I let go Hou Bo Hou Bo, let me go, when I was up quite a number of people, then the President of a better mood, so I at that time on a photo shoot, this photo is that the President left Beijing the only photo of the
The evening of December 6 Mao left Beijing.
Chairman Mao Zedong when defender李家骥
Manzhouli Chairman Mao from the domestic to the train ride to the Chiang Kai-shek of the United States, but the train had not been in a Chiang, Song Meiling spent only once, really good, very luxurious. But did not expect this car to the northeast on the frozen. Chairman Mao was very humorous with that does not mean that everything the United States, please? Some people even said that the moon is round, a train to the northeast on how cold it is the case?
From Shenyang to start, a special train on Heating always failed to fix the temperature inside the minimum close to minus 5 degrees, Mao suffered from the cold. In China after three days away, Mao Zedong and his change in Manzhouli came to meet the Sudanese side of the train, heading for Moscow to continue.
When the Chinese embassy staff in the Soviet Union Liu Zheng
I remember at that time Moscow has been more than 20 degrees below zero, then the feeling is still quite cold, the President's car into the station when the 12 o'clock precisely.
Chairman Mao Zedong when defender李家骥
I have a few one, two, has been the number to twelve, this time to get off of Chairman Mao, Chairman of humor to say: Good! We welcome the use of the bell.
Vice-Chairman of the Council of Ministers and the Soviet Union Marshal Bulganin Molotov boarded a special train to meet Mao Zedong. And this, under extremely cold weather, the welcoming ceremony simple. Mao agreed to the arrangements for the Sudanese side and delivered a written speech, pointing out that "the important task at present is to consolidate the Soviet-led camp of world peace and oppose war, discord, and the consolidation of Sino-Soviet diplomatic relations the two countries, and development of Sino-Soviet friendship. "implicitly reflects the intention of the visit. Subsequently, Mao Zedong to Stalin's wartime traveling dacha lived.1949年10月1日,新中国开国大典开始后仅两个小时,苏联政府承认中华人民共和国的贺电就发到了中南海。第二天,苏联断绝同国民党政府的外交关系,成为第一个与新中国建交的国家,也由此带动了欧亚十余个国家对中国的承认。
两个月后,新中国主席毛泽东决定亲赴莫斯科访问。他此行的目的主要是商谈废除不平等的中苏旧约,签订新约;寻求苏联经济和技术援助;同时祝贺斯大林七十寿辰。此次出访,是中国共产党和中华人民共和国最高领导人的第一次正式出访。红墙内的人们早在一个月前就开始为毛泽东的远行忙碌开了。
时为访苏代表团机要员 沈剑心
从总后,我现在还保存着缴来的美国人的鸭绒被,一个人一床、一卷,每个人又搞了一双大的靴子。
时为毛泽东主席卫士 李家骥
周总理和罗瑞卿都建议毛主席要顺应国际的礼节,要叫他做黑的、黑色的礼服,黑色的皮鞋,甚至袜子也是黑的。主席就问:怎么还有这么复杂?我就不穿黑的。因为主席那个脾气他说了就算了,总理就做工作,还是得穿,特别是咱们国家第一次像主席这样的身份访问苏联,我们一定要和外交礼节相适应。主席一听总理这么一解释,主席就说:那好。就一套黑色的,一套做灰的。就是他所喜欢的灰色。
在毛泽东的行囊里,最多最重的是书。
时为毛泽东主席卫士 李家骥
田家英同志拟了一个书目,叫主席看完以后,我们进行准备。这里面什么《资治通鉴》,什么《史记》,什么《鲁迅全集》,还有苏联的托尔斯泰、高尔基等等,装了两箱子书。
原中办翻译组组长 阎明复
斯大林正好是七十大寿,要给斯大林准备一些礼品,听说是毛主席自己决定的。送了两个车皮的礼品,可谓不少。一车皮山东的大葱,一车皮是江西的蜜桔。那么为什么毛主席要送大葱呢?后来我想主席他的每一件事想得都很周到,一定有很深刻的寓意在里面。后来想了多少年,我听别人讲的一个笑话,说山东人打架的时候,你要给他吃大葱马上不打了。我就联想到,因为共产国际时代他们当然做了很多工作,帮助中共建党,但在斯大林时代也做了很多对中国革命不利的事情,把王明路线强加给我们等等。双方之间,用毛主席的话来讲,就是总是有一肚子气。那么我就想他是想用大葱这个方式来消气了,以后我们在建设社会主义的时候不要再生气了。
鉴于各种考虑,对毛泽东的此次出访,中共中央没有向外发布消息。
时为中央新闻纪录电影制片厂摄影师 徐肖冰
侯波她是中南海摄影科科长,她知道主席要到莫斯科去,俩人就跟着主席卫士的车子一起就到火车站去了。北京那个时候恐怕是下雪了,上主席的列车很严格的,我让侯波上去侯波让我上去,当时我上去的时候有好些人,那时候主席的情绪比较好,所以我在那个时候就拍了一张照片,这张照片就是主席离开北京的唯一一张照片了
12月6日晚毛泽东离开北京。
时为毛泽东主席卫士 李家骥
毛主席从国内到满洲里坐的这个专列是美国送给蒋介石的,但这个专列蒋一次都没有坐过,只有宋美龄坐过一次,确实不错,非常豪华。但是这个车没有想到到了东北就冻坏了。当时毛主席就非常带有幽默地说,不是说美国什么东西都好吗?有人甚至说月亮都是圆的,火车到了东北它怎么就冻了呢?
从沈阳开始,专列上的暖气始终没能修好,车厢内的温度最低时接近零下5度,毛泽东患上了感冒。在中国境内走了三天后,毛泽东一行在满洲里换乘苏方前来迎接的专列,继续驶向莫斯科。
时为中国驻苏联大使馆工作人员 刘铮
我记得那时候莫斯科已经零下二十多度,那时候感觉还是相当冷,主席的车进车站的时候正好是中午十二点。
时为毛泽东主席卫士 李家骥
我就数一、二 ,一直数到十二,这时候毛主席要下车了,主席幽默地说:好!用钟声欢迎我们。
苏联部长会议副主席莫洛托夫和元帅布尔加宁登上专列迎接毛泽东。并告知,因天气太冷,欢迎仪式从简。毛泽东同意苏方的安排并发表了书面讲话,指出“目前的重要任务,是巩固以苏联为首的世界和平阵营,反对战争挑拨者,巩固中苏两大国的邦交,和发展中苏人民的友谊。”含蓄地反映了此次访问的意向。随后,毛泽东乘车前往斯大林战时居住过的乡间别墅。
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邓小平理论形成的历史根据是什么
uio899
回答了这个问题 | 09-07-21
1. The era of Deng Xiaoping Theory and the formation of the background theory is a product of the times. Era is characterized by certain countries in a certain period the development of the theory and practice of international background. 20th century since the 80's, the international situation has undergone many significant changes, peace and development become the theme of the times. The international situation of the many major changes, the main problems: First, the world began the process of multi-polar pattern. Forces to safeguard world peace than the war the growth of the power of growth; second, development of each country become the world's most concerned about. Whether developing or developed countries, there is a further development, the competition between countries is the competition of comprehensive national strength; Third, modern science and technology in socio-economic development in the increasingly prominent role. In the new historical conditions, the competition of comprehensive national strength is mainly in science and technology competition. Based on scientific judgments of the international situation, Deng Xiaoping put forward persist in taking economic construction as the center, the development of science, technology and education persist, persist toward modernization, the world, future-oriented thinking and so on, these ideas are an important part of Deng Xiaoping Theory. It should be noted: that "peace and development" has become the subject of the present era, is presented in today's world the main features of the main issues facing the bear and the terms of the main tasks. The real achievement of this goal, the world multi-polar pattern of the final form is still a struggle with the complexity of the process, people must go through the hard work of long-term. 2. Deng Xiaoping Theory and the formation of the historical basis for China's socialist construction of the road to explore the history of both positive and negative experiences, the formation of Deng Xiaoping Theory is an important historical basis. China's socialist practice and to explore the main experiences are: 1 October, 1949 People's Republic of China was born, the new-democratic revolution in the country's victory; in 1952 ~ 1949 period to restore the national economy; in 1949-socialist transformation in 1956 period; Mao in April 1956 published "On the Ten Great Relations"; by the end of 1956, the establishment of the basic system of socialism; Mao Zedong in February 1957 published "On Correctly Handling Contradictions Among the People", founded on the doctrine of the socialist social contradictions ; in 1957 to build socialism in our country the first year of a comprehensive and seriously implement the Party's Eighth National Congress of correct principles, is the best since the founding of the work of one of the year. However, some "leftist" tendencies began to surface. 1976 ~ 1958, the guiding ideology of the party guilty of the "leftist" mistakes; in 1966 ~ in 1976 the "Cultural Revolution", China's socialist construction, the road to explore the twists and turns, there had been significant; in October 1976 after Deng Xiaoping at the core the second generation of central collective leadership, led the entire party and the people throughout the firm to rectify the above error. The road of socialist construction of China's exploration of the history of both positive and negative experiences, the formation of Deng Xiaoping Theory is an important historical basis. 3. The formation of Deng Xiaoping Theory is a theory of reality based on the basis of practice. Party since the Third Plenary Session, persist in taking economic construction as the center and the four cardinal principles, and vigorously promote the reform and opening up access to the social productive forces of liberation and a huge new development of the whole party and the socialist modernization drive has become a national people strive for common goals. Deng Xiaoping, the leadership of our party, under the guidance of Marxism, from the historical and practical experiences and lessons extracted in summary, to discover and reveal the socialist modernization of China's objective laws, the formation of the Deng Xiaoping Theory. Design and the leadership of Deng Xiaoping, China's reform and opening up and modernization drive great practice and the practice of this great new practice and accumulated experience, these practices and practical experience for the formation of Deng Xiaoping Theory, provides a realistic basis.
The answer to add
Theoretical basis: general - to create an advanced human culture, and narrow - Marxism-Leninism, Mao Zedong Thought.
The historical basis: the Chinese experience and lessons of socialist construction, the "Cultural Revolution" and the rise and fall of the Soviet Union.
Based on reality: since the Third Plenary Session of China's reform and opening up and socialist modernization.1. 邓小平理论形成的时代背景理论是时代的产物。一定的时代特征是各国在一定时期的理论与实践发展的国际大背景。20世纪80年代以来,国际形势发生了许多重大变化,和平与发展成为当今时代的主题。国际形势发生的许多重大变化,主要表现在:第一,世界开始了多极化格局的进程。维护世界和平力量的增长超过了战争力量的增长;第二,发展问题成为世界各个国家最为关注的问题。无论发展中国家还是发达国家都有一个再发展的问题,国家之间的竞争主要是综合国力的竞争;第三,现代科学技术在社会经济发展中的作用越来越突出。在新的历史条件下,综合国力的竞争主要是科学技术的竞争。基于对国际形势的科学判断,邓小平提出了坚持以经济建设为中心,坚持发展科技和教育,坚持面向现代化、面向世界、面向未来等思想,这些思想是邓小平理论的重要内容。应注意到:说“和平与发展”成为当今时代的主题,是就当今世界所呈现的主要特征、所面临的主要问题和所承担的主要任务而言。这个目标的真正实现、世界多极格局的最终形成还是一个充满复杂斗争的过程,必须经过人们长期的艰苦奋斗。 2.邓小平理论形成的历史根据我国社会主义建设道路探索中的正反两方面历史经验的总结,是邓小平理论形成的重要的历史根据。我国社会主义实践及其探索的主要经历是: 1949年10月1日中华人民共和国诞生,新民主主义革命在全国的胜利; 1949年~1952年国民经济恢复时期; 1949年~1956年社会主义改造时期; 1956年4月毛泽东发表《论十大关系》; 1956年底,社会主义基本制度建立; 1957年2月毛泽东发表《关于正确处理人民内部矛盾的问题》,创立了关于社会主义社会矛盾的学说; 1957年是我国全面建设社会主义的第一年,认真贯彻执行了党的八大的正确方针,是建国以来工作效果最好的年份之一。但一些“左”的倾向开始露头。 1958年~1976年党的指导思想犯了“左”的错误; 1966年~1976年“文化大革命”,中国社会主义建设道路的探索出现了重大的曲折; 1976年10月以后,以邓小平为核心的第二代中央领导集体,领导全党和全国人民,果断纠正了上述错误。对我国社会主义建设道路探索中的正反两方面历史经验的总结,是邓小平理论形成的重要的历史根据。 3.邓小平理论形成的现实依据实践是理论的基础。党在十一届三中全会以来,坚持以经济建设为中心,坚持四项基本原则,大力推进改革开放,使社会生产力获得了新的解放和巨大的发展,社会主义现代化成了全党和全国人民为之奋斗的共同目标。邓小平领导我们党在马克思主义的指导下,从历史和现实的经验与教训中进行提炼总结,发现并揭示了我国社会主义现代化建设的客观规律,形成了邓小平理论。邓小平设计和领导了我国改革开放和现代化建设的伟大实践,并在这场伟大的实践中积累了新的实践经验,这些实践和实践经验为邓小平理论的形成提供了现实依据。
答案补充
理论基础:广义—人类创造的先进文化,狭义—马克思列宁主义、毛泽东思想。
历史根据:中国社会主义建设的经验教训,“文化大革命”和苏联的兴衰。
现实依据:十一届三中全会以来中国改革开放和社会主义现代化建设。
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2009年海南历史高考试题答案
uio899
回答了这个问题 | 09-07-21
January 4 to January 7: Application materials submitted; January 8 before 5:30 pm: Internet application; 9-10 Jan: e-photo camera; January 14-15: the province's arts professional examination; January 23 to February 23: Review of online searching for the qualification results; March 3 to March 15: online searching for medical information; March 17-18: Application for medical review; March 24: Application for final review examinations. (
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列宁新经济政策的历史作用
uio899
回答了这个问题 | 09-07-21
New theory of economic policy is taking l-Leninism in the Soviet Union a year after the implementation of the new economic policies put forward by the practice, but he is so in a short period of time to form a more complete theoretical system, there are ideological origins of the . To figure out a new theory of economic policy ideological roots, will help us to better grasp the essence and significance. This issue is China's new economic policy on the academic study of the weak link theory, this article intends to make some analysis.
I. Lenin of Russia before the October Revolution and social development conditions of the road
Before the October Revolution, Lenin on the Russian situation has quite a clear understanding, emphasizing the backward productive forces and to the farmers as the main body, can not directly implement a socialist. This ideological theory in the new economic policy was applied and reflected again. As early as the 19th century era of Mao, Lenin began to engage in political struggle and the theory of living
Move when Russia began to study the laws of economic and social development, critical public Catalpol and stage of development goes beyond the utopian social thought. In "the development of capitalism in Russia" and other works, he pointed out that the development of capitalism has become a fact, nothing can force Russia to leave this path. He said: "Russia's economic system is a bourgeois society, to rid ourselves of the community can only have a system from the nature of the bourgeoisie is bound to have a way out, that is, the proletarian class struggle against the bourgeoisie." Chuan (Pl,) but Lenin stressed that the most important task facing Russia is a democratic revolution, in order to create conditions for the development of capitalism, and then carry out the struggle of the proletariat against the bourgeoisie.
Lenin was a disaster in 15 years (the Social Democratic Party in the two strategies of the Democratic Revolution, "a book that, the upcoming revolution in Russia is the nature of the bourgeois revolution, the revolution caused by the political system and socio-economic aspects change does not go beyond the scope of capitalism, not to destroy capitalism, but to clear the way for the development of capitalism. revolution's goal is to achieve in the political class, the proletariat and the revolutionary dictatorship of the peasants, the Democratic Republic of the establishment; in the economy to meet the the requirements of the farmers share the land, the eradication of the remnants of feudal serfdom economy. to achieve the key aims of the revolution is that adhering to the leadership of the revolutionary proletariat of the right to rely on the worker-peasant alliance. Lenin emphasized that although the victory of the revolution in favor of the development of capitalism, but the "asset revolution to the proletarian class is extremely favorable, "" In a sense, the bourgeois revolution of the proletariat more favorable than those of the bourgeoisie. "He added:" In addition to development of capitalism, the paranoia in the any other to find a way out for the working class, are reactionary. In some countries such as Russia, the working class is suffering not so much capitalism as it is suffering from a lack of development of capitalism. "side (Qiao 56) Lenin envisaged the use of the proletariat and the peasants as a revolutionary democratic dictatorship of the middle link in the development of democracy after a period, the transition to socialist revolution. He has targeted a critical democratic revolution and socialist revolution will be confused, that the socialist revolution directly The "skip" and think this is a utopian socialist petty bourgeoisie, do not know how to jump in at the time of capitalism in Russia is impossible. Lenin's ideas highlighted the characteristics of the Russian peasant country, reflects the development of productive forces determinism of historical materialism, the development of Marxist Peasant Revolution and the proletarian revolution to form the "chorus" of thinking.
During World War I, Lenin's view that the socialist revolution in the world of the conditions are ripe, and the Russian Revolution and socialism in the world will become an important part of the revolution and prelude. However, he was the future of the Russian Revolution is a clear understanding. In February 1917 before the revolution, Lenin had been that only the developed capitalist countries in Europe the conditions of DU will be revolutionary, and the tasks facing Russia is the first democratic revolution. February Revolution, Lenin did not immediately turn people to the socialist revolution. He said: "Russia is a country of farmers, is Europe's most backward countries in the world. In this country, the socialist victory can not be immediate and direct access." [3] (yin) in the "outline of April" and other works , Lenin made the transition from the democratic revolution into the socialist revolution of the Program. His view is that the power from the hands of the feudal landlords to the hands of the bourgeoisie that, the Russian bourgeois revolution has been completed. However, due to the backward countries, do not have direct class socialist revolution and economic conditions. Lenin clearly said: "We are not the direct mandate of 'implementation' of socialism, but only once the transition to supervision by social workers on behalf of Soviet production and distribution of products." Closed (P16) because "a small-scale farmers in the country, as long as the vast majority Most residents also realize that there is no need for a socialist revolution, the proletariat must not be made on the political parties' implementation of 'socialism with the purpose of' 〔4] (Qiao-3). Lenin was the main economic measures proposed is that the nationalization of land, national bank into state bank by a representative of the Soviet workers to monitor and supervise the workers on behalf of Soviet production and distribution. He said that these measures "by no means' the implementation of 'Socialist," "only toward socialism steps "[4] (Qiao-3). until after the victory of October Revolution, Lenin also advocated not immediately deprived of capitalism, but supervision of the implementation of the workers. He also repeatedly said that the Revolution was a democratic revolution, first of all to complete the democratic revolution task.
Lenin of the above-mentioned conditions and revolutionary Russia of the development path of his long period of time that a low level of productive forces in Russia do not have the conditions for the establishment of a socialist directly; has been that Russia is a country of farmers as the main body, the proletarian revolution
In alliance with the farmers, respect the interests of farmers. Although the Revolution was a socialist in the political revolution, but it's economic and class relations will not change the characteristics of these two. Lenin in "direct transition" after the failure, it is based on the understanding of these two points, find a new path of economic policy, pointing out that through the gradual, move back to the transition to socialism.
Second, the market economy and Leninist thinking of early
Lenin's New Economic Policy of the Marxist ideology of the most outstanding contribution to the building of socialism is the proposal to make use of the relationship between commodity currency to commercial and market-based. The theory of innovation and Lenin before the revolution新经济政策理论主要是列宁在l 兜1 年苏俄实行新经济政策以后的实践中提出来的,但是他所以能在短时间内就形成了较为完整的理论体系,是有思想上的渊源的。搞清楚新经济政策理论的思想渊源,有助于我们更好地把握其精神实质和重大意义。这个问题也是我国学术界关于新经济政策理论研究的薄弱环节,本文拟作些分析。
一、十月革命前列宁对俄国国情和社会发展道路的认识
十月革命前,列宁对俄国国情有比较清醒的认识,强调生产力落后和以农民为主体,不能直接实行社会主义。这种实事求是的思想在新经济政策理论上再次得到运用和体现。早在19 世纪卯年代,列宁开始从事政治斗争和理论活
动时,就着手研究俄国经济和社会发展规律,批判民梓主义超越社会发展阶段的空想思潮。在《 俄国资本主义的发展》 等著作中,他指出,资本主义的发展已成为事实,没有什么力量能使俄国离开这条道路。他说:“俄国经济制度是资产阶级社会,要摆脱这个社会只能有一条从资产阶级制度本质中必然产生的出路,这就是无产阶级反对资产阶级的阶级斗争。”川(Pl , )但是,列宁同时强调,俄国面临的首要任务是进行民主革命,为资本主义的发展创造条件,然后再开展无产阶级反对资产阶级的斗争。
列宁在写于1 灾15 年的(社会民主党在民主革命中的两种策略》 一书中认为,即将到来的俄国革命是资产阶级性质的革命,革命所引起的政治制度和社会经济方面的变革并不超出资本主义的范围,不摧毁资本主义,反而为资本主义的发展扫清道路。革命的目标是,在政治上实现无产阶级和农民阶级的革命专政,建立民主共和国;在经济上满足农民平分土地的要求,消灭封建农奴制经济残余。实现革命目标的关键是,坚持无产阶级对革命的领导权,依靠工农联盟。列宁特别强调,虽然革命胜利有利于资本主义的发展,但“资产阶级革命对无产阶级是极其有利的”, “从某种意义上说,资产阶级革命对无产阶级要比对资产阶级更加有利”。他还说:“除了使资本主义向前发展以外,妄想在任何其他方面替工人阶级寻找出路,都是反动的。在像俄国这样一些国家里,工人阶级与其说是苦于资本主义,不如说是苦于资本主义发展得不够。”侧(巧56 )列宁设想,利用无产阶级和农民的革命民主专政作为中间环节,经过一段民主主义的发展,再向社会主义革命过渡。他有针对性地批判了将民主革命与社会主义革命混为一谈,主张直接进行社会主义革命的“跳过论”,认为这是小资产阶级社会主义空想,不懂得在当时的俄国跳过资本主义是不可能的。列宁的这些思想突出了俄国农民国家的特点,体现了生产力发展决定论的历史唯物主义观点,发展了马克思主义无产阶级革命与农民革命组成“合唱”的思想。
在第一次世界大战期间,列宁认为在世界范围内社会主义革命的条件成熟了,并且俄国革命将成为世界社会主义革命的重要组成部分和序幕。但他对俄国革命前途的认识是清醒的。在1917 年二月革命前,列宁一直认为只有欧洲发达资本主义国家才有条件进行杜会主义革命,而俄国面临的任务是首先进行民主革命。二月革命后,列宁并没有提出要立即转人社会主义革命。他说:“俄国是一个农民国家,是欧洲最落后的国家之一。在这个国家里,社会主义不可能立刻直接取得胜利。”[ 3 ] (阴)在《 四月提纲》 等著作中,列宁提出了从民主革命过渡到社会主义革命的纲领。他的看法是,就政权已从封建地主手中转到了资产阶级手中这一点来说,俄国资产阶级革命已经完成。但由于国家落后,还不具备直接进行社会主义革命的阶级条件和经济条件。列宁明确说:“我们的直接任务并不是‘实施’社会主义,而只是立刻过渡到由工人代表苏维埃监督社会的产品生产和分配。”闭(P16 ) 因为“在一个小农国家里,只要绝大多数居民还没有觉悟到必须进行社会主义革命,无产阶级政党就决不能提出‘实施’社会主义的目的’· 〔4 ] (巧3 )。列宁当时提出的经济措施主要是,实行土地国有化,把全国的银行合并成一个国家银行而由工人代表苏维埃进行监督,并且由工人代表苏维埃监督产品的生产和分配。他说,这些措施“决不是‘实施’社会主义”, “只是走向社会主义的步骤”[ 4 ] (巧3 )。直到十月革命胜利后,列宁还主张不立刻剥夺资本主义,而是实行工人监督。他还多次说,十月革命是一场民主革命,首先要完成民主革命的任务。
上述列宁对俄国国情和革命发展道路的认识,说明他长时间认为俄国生产力水平低,不具备直接建立社会主义的条件;一直认为俄国是以农民为主体的国家,无产阶级在革命
中必须与农民结成联盟,尊重农民的利益。尽管十月革命在政治上是社会主义革命,但是它在经济上和阶级关系上不会立即改变这两个特点。列宁在“直接过渡”失败后,正是基于对这两点的认识,找到了新经济政策道路,指出通过渐进、迁回方式向社会主义过渡。
二、列宁早期的市场经济思想
列宁新经济政策思想对马克思主义最突出的贡献,就是提出了社会主义建设要利用商品货币关系,以商业和市场为基础。这一理论创新与列宁在革命前对市场经济的深人研究有很大关系。
市场经济思想在列宁经济理论体系中是个核心问题,它像一根红线贯穿于列宁各个时期大量理论论著中。在列宁所处的时代,国际国内资本主义经济的发展以及世界革命形势的需要,既为列宁市场经济理论的形成提供了现实条件,又向列宁提出了发展马克思主义商品经济理论的迫切要求。正是对资本主义市场经济的不断研究,成为列宁萌生社会主义可以利用市场经济的观念的逻辑起点。列宁早期主要是研究俄国资本主义市场经济的产生、演变及其内在矛盾,第一次世界大战期间列宁着力研究发达的资本主义市场经济规律,揭示帝国主义的本质及其发展前景。这两个阶段列宁提出的关于市场经济的一般原理,为1921 年后探素在经济文化落后的俄国杜会主义经济建设中如何利用商业和市场关系打下了思想基础。
第一,发展了马克思“商品生产”的概念,首次明确提出并阐发了“商品经济”和“市场经济”这两个既有联系又有区别的范畴。列宁认为,商品经济和市场经济是包括经济发展全过程和一切环节的范畴,是生产关系的总和。他特别注重市场在整个经济体系和经济运转过程中的作用,指出商品经济“就是通过市场而彼此联系起来的单独生产者的生产”[ ’〕 ( I 口印),是受市场支配的经济。商品经济是面向市场的经济,市场是促进经济发展的有力因素。到新经济政策时期,列宁强调要“研究市场”,经济发展要“以市场、商业为基础”, 这不是偶然的。
第二,由自然经济向商品经济转化是一个不可逾越的社会历史过程。这是由生产发展和社会分工所决定的。列宁考察了生产的分工、社会化与商品经济的关系,强调指出:“社会分工是商品经济的基础。”[ 5j ( P17 )分工的发展,促进生产的社会化和市场交换关系的不断发展。“市场不过是这种分工和商品生产的表现”川(既),是自然经济与商品经济的本质区别。列宁通过研究人类社会经济时代的发展和演变,确信商品经济是社会发展不可逾越的阶段。第三,商品经济并非是资本主义所独有的现象。列宁认为,“商品经济发展到一定阶段时必然转变为资本主义经济”〔 ’〕 (P179 )。“十分发达的商品生产只有在资本主义社会才是可能的,但是一般的‘商品生产’无论从逻辑上或者从历史上来说都是先于资本主义的。”[ ' 1 ( l 趁的)他认识到,把商品生产的一般特征同以资本主义生产关系为基础的商品生产的具体形态混淆是有害的。
第四,市场经济是推动生产力发展的巨大动力。列宁坚持以是否有利于发展生产力为标准来研究经济形式的演变,揭示市场经济的必然性、优越性。他指出,市场经济能够推动社会分工和生产社会化的发展,通过相对独立的利益机制驱使商品生产者改进经营、提高技术、降低成本、强化管理、扩大生产。列宁还研究了市场经济运行机制中的竞争、核算、等价交换、节约、效益、盈利等原则和规律,有力说明了市场经济是配置资源的有效方式。在新经济政策开始后,列宁明确提出“实行商品交换可以刺激农民扩大播种面积和改进农业”, “只有在商业核算这个基础上才能建立经济”,川(尺39 ) “要用一切办法坚决发展流转”, “不亏损”, “取得赢利’, “精打细算”等观点,与上述认识是一致的。
第五,世界经济的统一性是商品经济发展的必然结果。列宁认为,生产的分工和社会化将从一国现象发展为国际现象,形成统一的世界经济和国际市场。世界经济是商品市场关系高度发展的产物,世界经济的统一性要求各国经济参与国际竞争,利用国际市场条件,加快发展。这为他后来提出扩大对外经济联系、利用资本主义文明成果提供了思想条件。
既然列宁有着关于市场经济的理论基础,且始终坚持生产力标准,又善于根据实践经验修正错误认识,所以,在“直接过渡”受挫后,转向发展商品市场经济也就不难理解了。三、夺取政权初期谨慎过渡的尝试
列宁在论述新经济政策问题时,多次强调新经济政策与夺取政权后头半年多的政策,特别是1918 年春天的政策之间的内在联系。在《 论粮食税》 、《 俄国革命的五年与世界革命的前途)、《 论合作社)等著作中,列宁一再指出,如果要说明我们为什么会实行新经济政策,那就要从我1918 年春写的论国家资本主义的文章《 论“左派”幼稚性和小资产阶级性》 谈起。并且,列宁大段引证该文关于国家资本主义的论述,说明为什么1 兜1 年后要实行新经济政策,新经济政策与1918 年春的政策有何异同。
从十月革命胜利到1918 年夏天,列宁关于社会主义建设的思想可以说是“谨慎的直接过渡”。说“谨慎”,是指它包含着缓慢、渐进过渡的思想萌芽。列宁在这期间继续坚持《 四月提纲》 等文献中关于逐步向社会主义过渡的思想,认为小生产占优势的俄国必须经过国家资本主义道路才能走向社会主义。革命胜利后,列宁在政策上也没有立即提出进行社会主义革命,而是主张先实行工人监督、银行国有化、土地社会化等民主性质的政策。在用“赤卫队”方式向资本家进攻一段时间后,列宁在1918 年4 月提出由剥夺转向管理,形成了短暂的“退却”计划。说它是“直接过渡”,是因为列宁在这期间还没有认识到商品货币关系在向社会主义过渡中的关键作用,想利用国家政权和行政命令的力量,借助于国家资本主义对产品进行统计和监督的机制,建立起全民的、无所不包的产品经济模式,实现从小生产到大生产的过渡。而
且,列宁在1918 年3 一4 月提出的改造农业和发展工业、消灭商品货币关系的政策,也有明显的直接过渡思想。“谨慎的直接过渡”思想,就其渐进、迁回、长期的思想萌芽而言,是列宁在革命前探索俄国社会变革道路思想的继承和发展,基本上是符合俄国国情的。但就其“直接过渡”的思想倾向而言,表明列宁在理论上仍未突破马克思主义传统观念,还没有最终找到适合俄国特点的社会主义建设道路。这样,它本身就有两种可能的发展趋向,即“直接过渡”和“间接过渡”。后来战争爆发,“直接过渡”思想被付诸实践,并发展为系统的战时共产主义理论。战时共产主义失败后,列宁再次提出探索符合小农经济特点的社会主义建设的道路,他自然会坚持和发展1918 年春的思想。所以,列宁说退却的“阵地是事先准备好的”川(P184 )。
可以从如下方面看出1918 年春的政策是新经济政策的重要思想来源。
第一,从战略转变的意义上看,两者都是在从战争转向和平经济建设的历史转折关头制定的政策,都提出要把发展生产力作为根本任务,要用不同于战争的方法从事复杂的经济建设,都不同程度地提出了退却。在这两个阶段,为了提高劳动生产率,列宁都提出了利用资产阶级专家、加强劳动纪律、实行经济核算、学习科学管理、改进劳动组织等等措施。
第二,从向社会主义过渡的指导思想看,二者都强调小农国家走向社会主义的艰巨性。1918 年春,列宁反复指出:在社会主义与资本主义之间,隔着一个长久的、比较困难的过渡时期;过渡时期的形式、长短,取决于占统治地位的是大私有制还是小私有制,是大农业还是小农业;我们才开始进人向社会主义过渡的时期,还没有达到社会主义;我们不能一下子跳到社会主义;不能强迫农民接受社会主义等等。转人新经济政策后,列宁在回顾1918 年春的政策时指出,“苏维埃政权试行了一种经济政策,起初打算实行一系列渐进的改变,打算比较慎重地向新制度过渡。”川(P 艺巧)即“试图通过一种可以说是最能适应当时存在的关系的途径,尽可能采用渐进的办法,不作大的破坏。”川(咫4 )这对1921 年列宁明确提出从小生产不能直接过渡到社会主义的思想来说,是个认识上的基础。
第三,从制定向社会主义过渡的政策的基本依据看,1918 年乃至十月革命前列宁一直认为俄国的经济结构是五种经济成分并存,其中小生产占优势。1921 年3 月列宁在《 论粮食税》 中则明确指出:“我国经济的基本成分仍然和从前一样。”图(巴伪)这是1918 年与1921 年经济政策具有内在联系的现实基础。
第四,从向社会主义过渡的主要途径看,1921 年春天与1918 年春天都主张把国家资本主义作为中间环节。列宁在分析新经济政策与1918 年政策的联系时,突出强调的也正是这一点。只是在这两个不同阶段,国家资本主义的性质、形式、地位和作用有所不同。但列宁始终把国家资本主义作为俄国从小生产向社会主义过渡的中间环节,这就决定了1918 年春的政策与新经济政策有内在联系。
第五,从对农民的政策看,列宁在讲话中几次将t921 年春执行粮食税的决议与1918 年ro 月的实物税法做对照,说明二者的联系。它们都强调无产阶级国家要维护农民的利益,将工农联盟建立在经济利益基础上。
1921 年秋天后,新经济政策有了重大发展,列宁对1918 年政策的认识也有了较大改变。他多次明确指出,1918 年的思想是“直接过渡到社会主义”, “当时根本没有提出我们的经济同市场、同商业的关系问题”川(咫l )。‘· 对国家资本主义具有根本意义的贸易自由,在这里就一个字也没有提到。’,回(巴76 )应该说.无论在向社会主义过渡的思想倾向上,还是在对国家资本主义、工农关系、商品货币、市场等具体问题的认识上,新经济政策都大大深化了列宁1918 年的思想。看不到它们之间的继承关系,就会把新经济政策看成是无源之水;而看不到新经济政策的发展,就会否定它的重大贡献及其意义。
四、对战时共产主义经验的总结在新经济政策初期,列宁主要是联系粮食政策的转变,从客观条件的变化方面分析、评价战时共产主义政策,说明实行新经济政策的原因,还没有认识到要根本转变社会主义建设的指导思想。在《 论粮食税》 中,列宁指出:" ‘战时共产主义’是战争和经济破坏迫使我们实行的。它不是而且也不能是一项适应无产阶级经济任务的政策。它是一种临时的办法。’,圈(胶佣一叨)那时,在经济方面只能按照战争方式行动,只着眼于分配现有物资、粮食,没有别的选择。而战时共产主义政策确实保证了战争的胜利,这是它的巨大功劳。但这个功劳是有限度的,现在战争结束了,增加产品数量成了主要任务,战时共产主义就行不通了,必须改变政策。即使如此,列宁也看到战时共产主义政策在经济上有做过头的地方,有失误。他在俄共(布)十大上指出:“我们在商业国有化和工业国有化方面,在禁止地方流转方面走得太远了。”“我们在这方面犯了很多错误。”“我们做得超过了理论上和政治上所必要的限度,这是不容置疑的事实。”sj (巧6 ) 列宁并且认识到:“在理论上,不一定要认为国家垄断制从杜会主义观点看来是最好的办法。”[ sJ (附)
由于还没有从指导思想上彻底否定战时共产主义,也由于还没有新的实践经验,列宁主要是从进攻和退却的角度论证政策转变的必要性,认为以前进攻跑得太远了,脱离了自己的阵地,所以要后退到自己的阵地上。他还不清楚究竟退到什么地方,只是提出了有限的退却目标,即退到战前已经提出过的政策上来。
1921 年lo 月后,列宁开始从主、客观两方面总结战时共
产主义的教习11 。列宁指出:“当时在某种程度上由于军事任务突然压来,由于共和国在帝国主义战争结束时似乎已经陷人绝境,由于这一些和其它一些情况,我们犯了错误:决定直接过渡到共产主义的生产和分配。当时我们认定,农民将遵照余粮收集制交出我们所需数量的粮食,我们则把这些粮食分配给各个工厂,这样,我们就是实行共产主义的生产和分配了。’, [ 7 ] ( P 182 )这里既讲了军事上的需要,又讲了认识上的错误。
列宁着重分析了战时共产主义的主观原因,明确承认战时共产主义作为社会主义经济建设的理论和政策是错误的,失败的。其实质在于,企图“用无产阶级国家直接下命令的办法在一个小农国家里按共产主义原则来调整国家的产品生产和分配’, ,川(P176 )实现“直接过渡’,。列宁称之为“强攻”办法。他说:“我们用‘强攻’办法即用最简单、迅速、直接的办法来实行社会主义的生产和分配原则的尝试已告失败。’, [ , ] (段25 )这种“直接过渡”的办法,阻碍了生产力的提高,使我们在经济战线上遭受了严重的失败,是造成1921 年春天经济和政治危机的主要原因。这说明“向纯社会主义形式和纯社会主义分配直接过渡,是我们力所不及的。”闭(几78 )所以,要改用围攻、渐进、迁回的方法间接进行社会主义建设。列宁提出,建设社会主义经济必须通过商业与小农经济结合起来,必须依靠个人利益,依靠经济核算,大力发展生产力。列宁反复要求全党要正确认识:在什么意义上说战时共产主义错了,错在哪里,为什么错,承认错误有什么意义,以更好地从错误中学习。
由于从指导思想上深刻反省了犯错误的原因,列宁已认识到实行新经济政策决不仅是克服战争造成的危机的需要,更主要的是要从根本上纠正过去那种脱离小农国家实际的政策和做法,把社会主义建设的战略建立在适应小农国情的基础上,与小农经济结合起来,实现社会主义理论和模式的根本转变。列宁这一阶段的新经济政策思想有了突破性发展,与其对战时共产主义的进一步认识有很大关系。
参考文献:
【 l 〕列宁全集:第1 卷〔 M 〕 .北京:人民出版社,1984 . 【 2 」列宁选集:第1 卷【 M 〕 .北京:人民出版社,1 卯5 . 〔 3 〕 列宁全集:第扮卷〔M ] .北京:人民出版社,1955 . 【 4 」列宁选集:第3 卷〔 M 〕 .北京:人民出版社,1 粥.【 5 」列宁全集:第3 卷【 M 〕 .北京:人民出版社,1984 【 6 〕 列宁全集:第6 卷【 M 〕 .北京:人民出版社,1986 〔 7 〕 列宁全集:第42 卷【 M 〕 北京:人民出版社,1987 . 〔 8 」列宁全集:第41 卷【 M 〕 北京:人民出版社,1986 . 【 9 」列宁全集:第43 卷〔M 〕 北京:人民出版社,1987 . (资任编辑:余小江)⑥ 1 夕外一200 万Tsin 动uaTo 叼瓦ng OPtical DiscCo , Lt 鼠Allrights reserved
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破斧沉金的历史人物
uio899
回答了这个问题 | 09-07-20
Ax heard breaking Immersion Gold, but had a history of Shen Zhou Ax story
Kettle: Pot. To break the pots, the ferry scuttled. Analogy no way, non-win can not be determined at all in the end stem.
"The Art of War to 9": "焚舟broken kettle, if the flock and to drive, drive from the莫知by."
"Records of the Historian of the Ji Xiang Yu": "Xiang Yu Qing son had been killed champion (SONG Yi楚军commander-in-chief),威震Chu, famous leaders.乃遣when Yangchun, 20000将卒general to cross the river Po (Zhanghe) and save the huge deer. war less profit, Chen Fu remaining Please soldiers.引兵Xiang Yu is noted to cross the river, are sinking, breaking Zeng, burning farmhouse, holding three days of grain to show士卒die without a heart also. "
"The Art of War," described as "broken kettle焚舟" Although the significance of that battle to fight to the death, but has yet to take shape later story on the story often. To the "Historical Records" of "Xiang Yu burn his" thing, only with the typical: Julu XiangYu forward to save the military, less initial benefit will be the rate of force XiangYu through Zhanghe, to burn his激厉morale. Finally kill Su Kok, from Krupp Wang, Qin defeated in the wild Julu.
After the "most drastic," said the determined man.
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[Edit this paragraph] Source
"Records of the Historian of the Ji Xiang Yu": "Xiang Yu引兵is noted to cross the river, are sinking, breaking Zeng, burning farmhouse, holding three days of grain to show士卒die without a heart also."
209 BC, China's history of the outbreak of the Chen Sheng Wu led the peasant uprising. After the expense of Chen Sheng Wu, led by Liu Bang and Xiang Yu grew up two armies. In 207 BC, Xiang Yu and the rebel army, led by Qin Qin will章邯main force in the Julu (now in Xingtai City, Hebei) started World War II; XiangYu defied formidable enemy,引兵Kuantu漳水(by Julu Northeast a river flows to the southeast). After crossing, the army command XiangYu: "are sunken, broken Zeng, burning farmhouse, holding three days of grain to show士卒die without a heart also." Julu the First World War, the break Qin, Xiang-Bing威震lords.
[Edit this paragraph] story
Historical background:
Chen Sheng, Wu Daze Heung uprising in a time when, in the Wu (Suzhou City, Jiangsu Province today) in项梁, Xiang Yu and the response from.项梁father, that is, Xiang Yu's grandfather, a famous general of the state of Chu Yan. XiangYu father died from a young age is under the care of his uncle项梁grew up. Young age, he will take revenge, determined to avenge the country, his uncle taught him calligraphy, he is not hard; allow him to learn fencing, he also refused efforts.项梁very angry he was not reproved Offer. However, Xiang Yu said: "to study and write, at most only remember the name in mind; fencing master, and only a few people fighting, I would like to learn that one million people in the enemy's ability."项梁listen to Xiang Yu said, nephew chest that has great ambitions, taught to learn The Art of War XiangYu.项梁good at making friends because I have met people what event, he rushed to help, local people are like him, he will become the leader of Wu Hero, and even some local officials have to respect him.
When the last parade of the First Qin Emperor, after Wu, many people came to watch. People standing on both sides of a see this majestic (lǐn), magnificent luxury Mercedes-Benz from the emperor车驾all afford to stand, the atmosphere does not dare to breathe (chuǎn). Only by standing at the crowd of a higher than others, Xiang Yu, staring at a pair of thick eyebrows and big eyes of God, said blurted: "What is remarkable, no one can replace him!"项梁scared XiangYu covered as soon as possible mouth quietly cautioned: "You're talking nonsense here, but others denounced it to be out of the nine." Back home, Xiang Yu blame uncle said: "The usual you always let me practice skills, learn art of war, so that I have in mind the home country of hate, how do you do today, so timid? "项梁said:" We are to do a big business, can not be impatient impatient gas. to revenge, we must learn to wait for the opportunity. "
It was during this year, the emperor on the road in the dead back to Xianyang. The next year, following II, and Chen Sheng, Wu uprising in Daze Heung. After the news, and Xiang Yu项梁very happy and exciting, they were revenge for the state of Chu of the time has come, it would kill the local governor, convened by the army since 8000, raised an army反秦.
But soon enough, there is news of Chen Sheng Qin will be defeated章邯, 8000 jiangdong项梁led army as soon as possible, across the Yangtze River and west into the front of line. Some scattered反秦team, such as Chen infants, British cloth, and so on, led by armed吕臣,项梁have defected to the ranks, so that the force increased to六七万people all of a sudden. But when Wang Chen Jia Zhuang has been killed by a traitor, Zhang regime has disintegrated. At this crucial juncture, in项梁Xue County (now in Tengzhou City, Shandong Province South) Rebel leader held various meetings to discuss the公推to the head of a rebel army. At this time, called Fan of the more than 70-year-old old man came to a meager项梁he said: "The six countries秦灭, Chu is most unfortunate.楚怀王been cheated to the state of Qin, Qin died, Chu people miss him so far. jiangdong you raised an army, a lot of people come to join you, because your home state of Chu from generation to generation is the general, it is hoped that the resumption of Chu you.楚怀王if you are a descendant of Li Yong Wang, we will be able to call more people. "
Fan项梁think it makes sense, then, look around on the楚怀王sent to future generations. Not long after, we find a bear楚怀王heart's grandson, when he was 13 years old, is taking her family belongings sheep. So项梁lead lap as the heart of the King of Chu Xiong, in order to conform to the feelings of Chu remembered native country, still called him a "楚怀王." After the news spread, there was a lot of people came to participate in项梁team.
Placed in the项梁Xuyi楚怀王(now the Northeast Xuyi county, Shandong Province), to lead troops to their west. He in East Afghanistan (now Yanggu County, Shandong Province, north-east)章邯defeat, but also in Puyang (Henan Province today Huaxian northeast) east of Great Qin break and then take the Dingtao (Heze City, Shandong Province, this South). At this time, the original Qi, Zhao, Yan, Wei and other countries of the old aristocracy, but also in their own land-li Wang, restored the name of their country, the Qin Dynasty saw the world will be finished. Not long ago项梁order to Xiang Yu and Liu Bang went to his rapid westward to lead troops. Xiang Yu and Liu Bang killed the General Lee from the Qin Dynasty. See章邯critical situation, as soon as possible please没听过破斧沉金,不过历史上有破斧沉舟的典故
釜:锅。把饭锅打破,把渡船凿沉。比喻不留退路,非打胜仗不可,下决心不顾一切地干到底。
《孙子兵法·九地》:“焚舟破釜,若驱群羊而往,驱而来,莫知所之。”
《史记·项羽本纪》:“项羽已杀卿子冠军(楚军统帅宋义),威震楚国,名闻诸侯。乃遣当阳春、蒲将军将卒二万渡河(漳河),救钜鹿。战少利,陈馀复请兵。项羽乃悉引兵渡河,皆沉船,破釜甑,烧庐舍,持三日粮,以示士卒必死,无一还心。”
《孙子兵法》所说的“焚舟破釜”虽然也表示誓死决战的意义,但尚未形成后世常谈的典故故事。至《史记》所载“项羽破釜沉舟”事,才具备了典型性:项羽前锋军救巨鹿,初战少利,项羽便率大军渡过漳河,破釜沉舟以激厉士气。终于杀苏角,虏王离,大败秦军于巨鹿之野。
后以“破釜沉舟”表示下定决心,义无反顾。
明史可法《请出师讨贼疏》:“我即卑宫菲食,尝胆卧薪,聚才智之精神,枕戈待旦,合方州之物力,破釜沉舟,尚恐无救于事。”(见《史忠正公集》
[编辑本段]出处
《史记·项羽本纪》:“项羽乃悉引兵渡河,皆沉船,破釜甑,烧庐舍,持三日粮,以示士卒必死,无一还心。”
公元前209年,我国历史上爆发了陈胜吴广领导的农民起义。陈胜吴广牺牲后,刘邦和项羽率领的两支军队逐渐壮大起来。公元前207年,项羽的起义军与秦将章邯率领的秦军主力部队在巨鹿(今河北邢台市)展开大战;项羽不畏强敌,引兵渡漳水(由巨鹿东北流向东南的一条河)。渡河后,项羽命令全军:“皆沉船,破釜甑,烧庐舍,持三日粮,以示士卒必死,无一还心。”巨鹿一战,大破秦军,项兵威震诸侯。
[编辑本段]典故
历史背景:
陈胜、吴广在大泽乡起义的时候,在吴中(今江苏省苏州市)的项梁、项羽起而响应。项梁的父亲,也就是项羽的祖父,是楚国名将项燕。项羽从小死了父亲,是在叔叔项梁的照顾下长大的。他小小年纪便立志为国家报仇雪耻,叔父教他书法,他不用功;让他去学习剑术,他也不肯努力。项梁很生气就骂他没有出息。但项羽却说:“念书写字,顶多记记姓名罢了;剑术学好了也只能和几个人对打,我要学那种一人敌万人的本领。”项梁听项羽这么一说,认为侄子胸有大志,就教项羽学习兵法。项梁本人因善于结交朋友,碰到人家有什么大事,他都赶去帮忙,当地的百姓都很喜欢他,他也就成了吴中豪杰的领袖,连地方官也要敬他几分。
秦始皇最后一次巡游时,经过吴中,许多人前来观看。站在两旁的百姓,一见这威风凛凛(lǐn)、豪华壮丽的皇帝车驾奔驰而来,都呆呆地站着,大气也不敢喘(chuǎn)。只有站在人群里比别人高出一头的项羽,瞪着浓眉下一双有神的大眼,脱口说道:“这有什么了不起,谁都可以取代他!”项梁吓得赶快捂住项羽的嘴悄悄地警告道:“你在这儿胡说八道,让别人告发了可是要灭九族的呀。”回到家里,项羽埋怨叔父说:“平日您总是让我练习武艺,学习兵法,让我念念不忘家国之恨,今天您怎么这样胆小怕事呢?”项梁说:“我们是要干一番大事业,不能心急气躁。要想报仇,就必须学会等待时机。”
就在这一年,秦始皇在回咸阳的路上病死。第二年,二世继位,陈胜、吴广在大泽乡起义。消息传来以后,项梁和项羽万分高兴和激奋,他们感到为楚国报仇的时机已经到来了,就杀掉了当地的郡守,召集起8000子弟兵,起兵反秦。
过了不久,有消息传来,陈胜被秦将章邯打败,项梁赶快率领江东8000子弟兵,渡过长江,向西面前线挺进。一些零散的反秦队伍,如陈婴、英布、吕臣等率领的武装,都纷纷投奔到项梁的队伍中来,使这支部队一下子增长到六七万人。但是这时陈王已经被叛徒庄贾杀死,张楚政权已经四分五裂。在这个紧要关头,项梁在薛县(今山东省滕州市南)召开各路起义军首领会议,商量要公推一个起义军的首领。这时候,有个叫范增的70多岁的老头子赶来献计,他对项梁说:“秦灭六国,楚最不幸。楚怀王被骗到秦国,死在秦国,楚国人至今怀念着他。您从江东起兵,有很多人前来投奔您,这是因为您家世世代代是楚国的大将,人们希望您恢复楚国。您如果拥立楚怀王的后代为王,就一定能够号召更多的老百姓。”
项梁觉得范增的话很有道理,就派人四处寻访楚怀王的后代。没过多久,大家找到一个楚怀王的孙子熊心,这时他才13岁,正替人家当放羊娃。于是项梁带领大家把熊心立为楚王,为了顺应楚人怀念故国的心情,仍称他做“楚怀王”。这个消息传开以后,果然又有很多人赶来参加项梁的队伍。
项梁把楚怀王安置在盱眙(今山东省盱眙县东北),自己带兵继续西进。他在东阿(今山东省阳谷县东北)打败章邯,又在濮阳(今河南省滑县东北)东面大破秦军,接着又攻下了定陶(今山东省菏泽市南)。这时候,原先齐、赵、燕、魏等国的旧贵族,也都在自己的土地上立了王,恢复了自己国家的名称,秦朝的天下眼看就要完蛋了。项梁命令项羽和不久前来投奔他的刘邦带兵急速西进。项羽和刘邦杀死了秦朝的大将李由。章邯见形势危急,赶快请秦朝政府派援军,乘着项梁得胜后骄傲自满,没有防备的机会,偷袭定陶,杀死了项梁。项梁一死,起义军的队伍受到很大损失,项羽、刘邦、吕臣等只好撤退到彭城(今江苏省徐州市)一带,采取守势。
再说秦将章邯击破了项梁率领的楚军主力之后,认为楚军元气大伤,用不着担心了,于是把项羽他们撇开不管,带领大军北渡黄河,攻打当时自称赵王的赵歇。赵王和他的谋臣张耳、陈余没有防备秦军的进攻,一战就败,只好退到巨鹿(今河北省平乡县)固守。章邯派大将王离和涉间把巨鹿城围困得如铁桶一般,秦军在城外布成了铁墙般的防线,章邯自己则率领主力运输粮草,供应王离的围城大军。
赵军被围困得顶不住了,赶紧派人四处求救,燕齐两国授赵大军早就赶到了,但一见秦军势力强大,谁也不肯充当那碰石头的鸡蛋,都缩头缩脑地远离秦军驻扎。
再说楚怀王接到赵王求援的书信,赶紧准备援军,派宋义为上将军,叫他带着次将项羽、末将范增北上救赵。
宋义率领大军由彭城出发,将士们休整了几个月,现在听说要去和秦军的主力拼杀,一个个摩拳擦掌,斗志很旺。但是宋义却是一个胆小怕事、自私自利的小人,他用甜言蜜语取得怀王的信任,骗取了兵权,但他根本就不想到城下和秦军拼命。当他走到安阳(今山东省曹县东)的时候,便号令全军原地休息,这一住就是40多天,他自己每天在大帐中饮酒作乐,从不提出兵援赵的事。
项羽实在忍耐不住,便来见宋义:“救兵如救火,现在赵王危险,我们应该立即率兵渡过黄河,与赵王来个里应外合,就一定能够大败秦军!”宋义斜着眼看了项羽一下,慢吞吞地说:“你哪里懂得兵法的妙用!我们的目标是消灭秦军,我的主意是先让秦赵拼个你死我活,我们可以坐收渔翁之利。在战场上冲锋打仗,我比不上你,要说出谋划策,你可就比我差远了。”项羽遭到一场抢白,强压着火儿没发作,怒哼哼地走出了军帐。
宋义冲着他的背影冷笑着,随即起草了一道命令,公布于全军说:“将士们打起仗来应该像虎狼那样凶猛,可谁要是不服从命令,一概都得砍头。”这显然是冲着项羽来的,叫他乖乖地服从命令。
项羽本是个火暴脾气,怎么会咽下这口气?一天早晨,他全副武装,大步跨进宋义军帐,再次要求立即出兵救赵。宋义大发脾气,喊:“我的军令已下,难道你要以头试令吗?”项羽大吼一声:“我要借头发令!”宋义本是个草包,顿时吓得软成一团,项羽一剑斩下他的脑袋。将士们听说杀了宋义,都立刻表示愿意服从项羽的指挥,并拥立项羽代理上将军一职。
一朝权在手,便把令来行。项羽担任了援赵大军的主帅,下令士兵每人带足三天的口粮,然后又下令砸碎全部行军做饭的锅。将士们都愣了,项羽说:“没有锅,我们可以轻装前去,立即挽救危在旦夕的赵国!至于吃饭嘛,让我们到章邯军营中取锅做饭吧!”大军渡过了漳(zhāng)河,项羽又命令士兵把渡船全都砸沉,同时烧掉所有的行军帐篷。战士们一看退路没了,这场仗如果打不赢,就谁也活不成了。
项羽指挥楚军很快包围了王离的军队,同秦军展开了9次激烈的战斗,渡河的楚军无不以一当十,以十当百,个个如下山猛虎,个个都奋勇拼杀。沙场之上,烟尘蔽日,杀声震天。楚军将士越斗越猛,直杀得山摇地动,血流成河。经过多次交锋,楚军终于以少胜多,把秦军打得大败,杀死了秦将苏角,俘虏了王离,涉间被打得走投无路,放火自焚(fén)而死,章邯带着残兵败将急忙后退。那些旧贵族派来的援军,看到项羽大获全胜,又是佩服,又是害怕。从此项羽就做了上将军,诸侯的军队都归他统率。
章邯带领残兵败将后退了几十里,派人到咸阳去求援兵。但赵高正忙着夺位,一个援兵也没派,章邯在走投无路的情况下,就率领剩下的秦军投降了项羽。
巨鹿这一场恶战,项羽的楚军击败了秦军的主力,强大的秦王朝已经无力抵挡农民起义军的进攻了。不久,刘邦的队打进咸阳,推翻了秦朝的统治。项羽立即带兵西进,项羽被称为“西楚霸王”范曾却对他说:“如果你想永远称为大王,就必须杀死刘邦。”但是项羽心想:“曾经是朋友,为是么一定要成为敌人?”
在鸿门宴上你一再推延不愿意杀死刘邦,还把刘邦封为汉王,可谁又有知道英雄相惜的情意呢?
你败了,败得一塌糊涂。尽管你“力拔山兮气盖世”,但你也只能突围而逃,留下虞姬,香消玉损。
对面,就是你日夜思念的家乡——江东。乌江江心有一条船,度过去你便可以重整旗鼓。
但你不愿意度过乌江,认为无颜见江东父老,认为大势已去,难有回天之力了。
你倒下了,带着遗恨,也留给后世许多思考。
[编辑本段]近义词
义无反顾、背水一战、决一死战、背城借一、孤注一掷
济河焚舟
[编辑本段]反义词
优柔寡断、瞻前顾后、举棋不定,抱头鼠窜,望风而逃
[编辑本段]歇后语
项羽砸锅
[编辑本段]用法
作谓语、宾语、状语;形容做事的决心很大。
[编辑本段]示例
1.只要我们有决心,就能克服学习上的各种困难。
2.战士们毫不畏惧,怀着破釜沉舟的决心,英勇地冲向敌人.
3.部队迅速接受的外线作战的方针,决心以破釜沉舟的精神,多打胜仗,搞好群众工作,开发根据地.
[编辑本段]提示
“釜”不可写成"斧".由于锅是金属做的,所以下面是“金”。
[编辑本段]影片
片 名:《破釜沉舟》
导 演:卫翰韬 邢树民
主 演:胡 军 饰 项羽
杨恭如 饰 虞姬
肖荣生 饰 刘邦
吴倩莲 饰 吕后
类 型:历史战争剧
编 剧:周长赋 刘岚 何耀宏
出 品 人:阎晓明 杨玉冰
背景介绍
高科技、新技术带来电影的“第二次革命”。电影是科学的艺术,诞生于十九世纪末的电影现在正面临“第二次革命”。电脑及数位处理、网络技术等的运用,在电影美学、艺术、营销等方面产生一系列根本性的变化,并给电影带来许多新产品和新功能,从而使电影进入一个崭新的纪元……
幕后花絮
楚汉争霸的最后结局并不能定义何者为王,何者为寇,“死亦为鬼雄”的项羽不但青史留名,甚至更成为“真男人”的代称,对于一个演员来说,扮演项羽也同样是个挑战,继成功演绎萧峰之后,胡军再次倾情演绎另一个悲剧英雄--楚霸王项羽。对于这个让人心折的一代枭雄,胡军说:“我要演出他悲剧命运背后的原因……
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[编辑本段]游戏技能
为梦幻西游大唐官府弟子技能,
功效:同时攻击对方三个目标
使用条件:人物飞升且“十方无敌”技能达到 120 级
消耗:上限 10% 的气血。当前气血<气血上限的50%时才能使用,复活后的当前回合无法使用.使用后停止行动1回合
为魔兽世界防御战士的技能
效果:提高生命值30%。
为魔兽世界防御战士的技能
效果:提高生命值30%。
[编辑本段]英语
Destroying the Cooking Pots and Boats
Explanation:
Equivalent to“burning one's bridges” or“crossing the Rubicon.”
Story:
Xiang Yu of the State of Chu was a sturdy youth who devoted himself to martial training from his earliest days. Growing up, he followed his uncle to participate in the uprising that toppled the Qin Dynasty.
Once, when the Qin army had occupied the State of Zhao, the fugitive king of Zhao appealed to the State of Chu for help.
破釜沉舟
The king of Chu dispatched Xiang Yu at the head of 200,000 men to Zhao's rescue. When the troops arrived at a river which separated them from the enemy by only a short distance, Xiang Yu personally led the main body across. He then ordered each man to carry no more than three days' rations and to destroy all the cooking pots and the boats, which had ferried them across the river. He then addressed his troops thus, "Now that we no longer have boats we cannot flee back across the river, so we have no alternative but to advance. And now that we no longer have cooking pots and only three days' rations we will starve to death unless we defeat the enemy within that time. "
This speech stiffened the morale of the Chu forces, and they went on to inflict a crushing defeat on the Qin army.
It was this campaign that made Xiang Yu's reputation He went on to become the spearhead of the forces, which finally toppled the Qin Dynasty.
古文:项羽已杀卿子冠军,威震楚国,名闻诸侯。乃遣当阳君、蒲将军将卒二万渡河,救钜鹿。战少利,陈余复请兵。项羽乃悉引兵渡河,皆沈船,破釜甑,烧庐舍,持三日粮,以示士卒必死,无一还心。于是至则围王离,与秦军遇,九战,绝其甬道,大破之,杀苏角,虏王离。涉间不降楚,自烧杀。当是时,楚兵冠诸侯。诸侯军救钜鹿下者十余壁,莫敢纵兵。及楚击秦,诸将皆从壁上观。楚战士无不一以当士,楚兵呼声动天,诸侯军无不人人惴恐。于是已破秦军,项羽召见诸侯将,入辕门,无不膝行而前,莫敢仰视。项羽由是始为诸侯上将军,诸侯皆属焉。
译文
项羽诛杀了卿子冠军,名闻于诸侯。就遣当阳君、蒲将军率领二万人渡过漳河,援救钜鹿。战斗稍获胜利,陈余又来请求增兵。项羽就率领全部军队渡过漳河,把船全部沉入水中,把锅和煮食物的瓦器(炊具)全部砸破,把简陋的方屋全部烧毁,只带三天的军粮,用这来表示全体士兵都坚决拼死战斗,没有一点后退生还的想法。部队抵达前线就包围了王离,与秦军遭遇,多次交战,截断对方甬道,大败秦军,杀了苏角(秦将),俘虏了王离。涉间拒不降楚,自焚而死。这时,楚兵的勇气和声威盖过各路诸侯军。诸侯军队中前来解救钜鹿之围的有十多座营垒,没有谁敢派兵出击。到楚军攻击秦军时,那些诸侯军的将领都躲在壁垒上观战。楚军战士没有不是用一个来抵挡十个,楚兵杀声震天,诸侯军人人战栗颤栗恐惧。与是打败秦军以后,项羽召见诸侯将领,他们进入军营之门时,没有谁不是跪著用膝盖向前走,没有谁敢抬头仰视。项羽从此开始成了诸侯联军的统帅,诸侯都隶属于他。
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我国目前有关历史文化名城及历史地段保护规划工作的主要指导思想和技术方法
uio899
回答了这个问题 | 09-07-20
城镇历史地段保护的现代历史文化保护原则,基本上确立了国际上保护历史街区的概念。在联合国教科Lots of historical cities and towns to protect the principles of modern historical and cultural protection, basically established to protect the history of the international concept of blocks. Approved by the UNESCO "World Heritage" list of more than half belong to a complete history of the ancient city or city blocks.
City in the new construction, many of the world's historical and cultural city history and culture also places great emphasis on the continuity and the new and old buildings, old and new neighborhoods with a unified response. Arc De Triomphe Paris, the new building is a good example.
Fourth, to respect history and culture, respect for the city
Respect for history, so that traces the history of dust-laden memories of wake-up call; respect for culture, so that the city dock context of modern civilization; respect for the city, so that the city's personality youthful glow.
The city is a historical and cultural phenomena, each era building in the city left a mark on their own, and the personality of a city of history and paved the unique charm of this city - the city's personality. Continuation of the historical context, the protection of urban character, should be the construction of urban modernization inherent meaning. In no way a modern city is a fragmented history of the city, on the contrary, the more modern city, the more attention to the history, culture, historical buildings and historical features of the protection, the more emphasis on cultural traditions to maintain and carry forward.
Since reform and opening up, the state of historical and cultural resource protection has been given unprecedented attention. Since 1982 has approved the three cities for a total of 99 state-level historical and cultural city. In 1986, the State Council released the second batch of national historical and cultural cities of the document also clearly put forward the concept of the protection of the historical district, the requirements for cultural relics can be more concentrated or completely reflect the style of a particular historical period and national characteristics of traditional neighborhoods , buildings, towns and other villages to be protected. With the "Heritage Law" enacted and revised, the protection of historical and cultural resources has become a broad consensus of the community. In this process, a number of historical and cultural cities have introduced their own historical and cultural city protection planning.
Fifth, to explore the meaning of the city, continuing the historical context - a modern real estate business bounden duty
Urban development as an important force in the majority of the real estate business should be the protection of historical and cultural resources of the city as their own responsibility, the continuation of the historical context, highlighting the city's personality, and maintain the fabric of the city as a project to determine whether or not an important criterion for success.
Nanjing in recent years in the development and construction of each project are devoted to the Nanjing understand the unique history and culture and lots of specific details of the interpretation of the humanities, have reflected the historical and cultural resources of the ancient city of love. For example:月牙湖in building the garden, take the initiative to reduce the rate of cell volume in order to maintain the ancient city wall, Crescent Lake, the original space rhythm; Mountain Water Court in the building when it originally planned to take the initiative to the 15-storey residential floor, 4 to 6 layers changed to the residential areas, so as to maximize the protection of the Zhongshan Gate of the historic look of the surrounding area; Rhododendron in building the United States to fully understand and tap the region Rhododendron culture, and cell culture as a whole the theme of all construction粉墙green, echoed with the ancient city wall; Lin Department in building an oasis in the process of the Seven Sages of the Bamboo Forest Seclusion culture and the transfer of the excavation to make it into a rich cultural atmosphere of the neighborhood-style community ... ...
It can be said that from a purely economic perspective, is not the most successful of these projects, but in so doing, it has maintained the ancient city of the characteristics of social benefits achieved. Can proudly say that from the resulting comprehensive benefits, we are of these projects claim to be good文组织批准的“世界文化遗产”名录中有一半以上属于完整的古城或古城的历史街区。
在新城区建设中,世界上的许多历史文化名城也十分注重历史文化的延续和新旧建筑、新旧街区的呼应与统一。巴黎新凯旋门的建设便是一个很好的例子。
四、尊重历史、尊重文化、尊重城市
尊重历史,让历史的痕迹唤醒尘封的记忆;尊重文化,让城市的文脉对接现代文明;尊重城市,让城市的个性焕发青春活力。
城市是一种历史和文化现象,每个时代都在城市建设中留下了自己的印记,而一个城市个性化的历史经历也造就了这个城市独特的魅力——城市个性。延续历史文脉、保护城市个性,应是城市现代化建设的题中应有之义。一个现代化的城市绝不是一个割裂历史的城市,相反,越是现代化的城市,越是重视历史文化、历史建筑和历史风貌的保护,越是重视文化传统的保持和弘扬。
改革开放以来,国家对历史文化资源保护给予了前所未有的重视。从1982年开始已批准三批共99座城市为国家级历史文化名城。1986年,国务院在公布的第二批国家历史文化名城的文件中还明确提出了历史街区保护的概念,要求对于文物古迹比较集中或能完整地体现出某一历史时期传统风貌和民族特色的街区、建筑群、小镇村落等予以保护。随着《文物法》的颁布和修订,保护历史文化资源已成为社会各界的广泛共识。在这一过程中,许多历史文化名城纷纷出台了自己的历史文化名城保护规划。
五、探索城市意义、延续历史文脉——现代房地产企业义不容辞的责任
作为城市建设的一支重要力量,广大房地产企业理应把保护城市历史文化资源作为自己应尽的责任,把延续历史文脉、彰显城市个性、保持城市肌理作为判断一个项目是否成功的重要标准。
南京近年来在开发建设的每一个项目,都倾注了对南京独特历史文化的领悟和对特定地段人文底蕴的解读,都体现了对古城历史文化资源的爱护。例如:在建设月牙湖花园时,主动降低了小区的容积率,以保持古城墙边、月牙湖畔的原有空间韵律;在建设紫金山水苑时,又主动把原计划中的15层的住宅楼改为4~6层的民居,从而最大限度地保护了中山门周边地区的历史风貌;在建设云锦美地时,充分了解和挖掘了该地区的云锦文化,并将其作为整个小区的文化主题,所有建筑粉墙青砖,与古城墙遥相呼应;在建设汇林绿洲的过程中,对竹林七贤的隐逸文化进行了挖掘和移用,使其成为具有浓郁文化氛围的街坊式社区……
可以说,从单纯的经济效益看,这些项目并不是最成功的,但这样做却保持了古城特色,实现了社会效益。可以自豪地讲,从产生的综合效益看,我们的这些项目都称得上是优秀
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初三志鸿历史教案
uio899
回答了这个问题 | 09-07-20
If you are a new teacher, then, we recommend that you not to download ready-made multimedia courseware, because even if the software is so outstanding teachers, but teachers in different classes, different classes of students, teaching is not the same as the effect.如果您是一位新教师的话,建议您不要去下载现成的多媒体课件,因为即使这个课件是优秀教师做的,但是不同的教师上课,不同的学生听课,教学效果是不一样的。
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阐述毛泽东思想的历史地位和指导意义
uio899
回答了这个问题 | 09-07-20
一、毛泽东思想是马克思主义中国化的第一大理论成果走马克思主义中国化的道路,形成中国化的马克思主义理论,是马克思主义在中国发展的规律。迄今为止,在这个过程中已经形成了三大理论成果,这就是毛泽东思想、邓小平理论和“三个代表”重要思想。历史经验告诉我们,这三大理论形态的相继出现,不是人为的主观臆造,而是合乎规律的必然发展。这种规律性,从客观意义上来看,就是时代条件的变迁和实践发展的要求;从理论品格上来看,就是马克思主义所固有的与时俱进性。毛泽东思想是在战争与革命为主题的历史条件下,适应中国革命实践发展的要求而产生的,它是这个时代的基本特征和中国革命实践规律的理论表现。邓小平理论是在和平与发展为时代主题的历史条件下,在开拓有中国特色社会主义道路的实践中形成的,它反映着这个时代的发展趋势和中国特色社会主义的运动规律。形成 “三个代表”重要思想的时代主题,虽然仍是和平与发展,但形势发生了根本性变化,这就是经济全球化的发展趋势,世界性科技革命的迅猛发展和中国社会主义市场经济的出现;由于形势的根本性变化,使中国特色社会主义事业的发展呈现出了诸多新的特点和规律,“三个代表”重要思想就是这些特点和规律的理论反映,是面向21 世纪的中国化的马克思主义。
毛泽东思想的诞生,在马克思主义发展史上具有深远的意义。从毛泽东思想和马克思列宁主义的关系而言,它把马克思列宁主义中国化了,使马克思列宁主义在中国生根、开花、结果,形成了马克思主义发展史上的一个崭新阶段。就是在这个阶段,不仅改变了中国历史发展的方向,而且搭起了民族民主运动和社会主义革命的桥梁。
毛泽东思想作为马克思主义中国化的第一大理论成果,
对中国化的马克思主义的继续发展,奠定了坚实的基础。无论是邓小平同志、还是江泽民同志,都把自己的理论看作是毛泽东思想的继承和发展。当有人企图全盘否定毛泽东思想时,是邓小平同志高举毛泽东思想的旗帜,坚持毛泽东思想的基本理论,特别是关于社会主义社会基本矛盾的理论,并沿着这一基本思路开辟了建设有中国特色的社会主义道路。江泽民同志始终认为,“三个代表”重要思想同马克思列宁主义、毛泽东思想、邓小平理论是一脉相承的统一的科学体系,特别是他关于社会主义建设中十二大关系的思想和《 论十大关系》 的联系,关于有中国特色社会主义基本纲领和《 新民主主义论》的联系,更具有历史的典型性意义。可以这样说:只有坚持马克思列宁主义和毛泽东思想的基本理论,有着深厚的马克思列宁主义和毛泽东思想的理论功底,才能更深刻地领会邓小平理论和“三个代表”重要思想的精神实质,更好地高举邓小平理论的旗帜,全面贯彻“三个代表”重要思想。二、毛泽东思想是开拓中国革命和建设道路的锐利武器马克思主义最基本的原则是理论和实践的统一。在马克思列宁主义和中国革命的具体实践相结合过程中产生的毛泽东思想,反转来又成了认识和改造中国的锐利武器。正如邓小平同志所说:一个国家革命要胜利,最根本的一条经验就是:各国共产党应根据自己国家的情况,找出自己的革命道路。毛泽东思想的实践价值,就在于它根据理论和实践具体的历史的统一原则,开辟了以农村包围城市为特征的新民主主义革命道路;以和平改造为特征的社会主义革命道路;还对中国社会主义建设道路进行了艰辛的探索。
关于以农村包围城市为特征的民主革命道路。要深刻理解这条道路的必然性和正确性,根据毛泽东同志的理论和实理格浦由004 年第8 期日
理论研究
践,应着眼于四个基本点:(一)旧中国是一个经济落后的半封建半殖民地社会,在这样一个国家搞革命,最大的对象是乡村宗法封建阶级,这是反动统治得以存在的基础。如无农民从农村中奋起,打倒封建地主阶级之特权,反动的上层建筑便不会根本倒塌;(二)旧中国是帝国主义、官僚资本和封建地主的专制统治,革命的基本形式必须是“枪杆子里面出政权”,以武装的革命反对武装的反革命;(三)农民是革命的主力军,新民主主义实质上就是农民革命主义,民主革命实质上就是农民革命,革命战争实质上就是农民战争.忘记了农民就没有了一切革命;(四)中国是一个经济政治发展不平衡的大国,敌人的统治中心在城市,广大农村则是其统治的薄弱环节,革命应首先在农村突破,实行“工农武装割据”,走农村包围城市武装夺取政权的道路。
关于以和平改造为特征的社会主义革命道路。按照马克思主义的一般原则是“剥夺者被剥夺”。列宁在俄国曾提出通过国家资本主义实行赎买政策。毛泽东同志则从中国的实际出发,提出中国社会主义革命要走和平改造之路。根据毛泽东同志的理论和实践,这条道路的基本点是:(一)中国的民主革命和社会主义革命是互相区别又互相渗透的。通过民主革命没收官僚资本,不仅具有社会主义革命的性质,而且为社会主义改造奠定了基础;(二)中国的社会主义改造是在人民民主专政条件下进行的,不怕资产阶级造反,根据资产阶级仍具有两面性特点,对资本主义工商业的社会主义改造,在人民内部矛盾范畴内进行,提供了现实可能性;(三)我国的社会主义改造是和社会主义工业化同时并举的,用社会主义工业化带动社会主义改造,用社会主义改造促进社会主义工业化的发展;(四)对资本主义工商业的改造,采取了委托加工、计划定货、统购包销、公私合营和全行业公私合营等一系列过渡形式,逐步把资本主义私有制变为社会主义公有制。
关于对社会主义建设道路的艰辛探索。建设有中国特色社会主义道路的开拓,始于毛泽东,成于邓小平,发展于江泽民。毛泽东同志作为第一开拓者,他在探索中既有严重失误,也有重大成就。但总的看来,他的探索和创新,丰富了对社会主义建设规律的认识,有力地指导了我国的社会主义建设。这主要表现在:提出了社会主义社会基本矛盾的理论,提出了经济建设也要走自己道路的思想,提出了以农业为基础、以工业为主导的方针,提出了以自力更生为主、争取外援为辅的原则,提出了建立比较完整的工业体系和国民经济体系的设想,提出了正确处理人民内部矛盾的理论和政策等。这就是邓小平同志和江泽民同志相继在新的历史条件下成功地开拓和发展中国特色社会主义道路的基础和起点。
毛泽东同志在探索中还提出了一些非常有见地的思想。如“在中国建设强大的社会主义经济五十年不行,会要一百年,或者更长的时间”; “社会主义这个阶段,又可分为两个阶段,第一阶段是不发达的社会主义,第二阶段是比较发达的社会主义”; “商品生产不能与资本主义混为一谈”, “商品生产可以乖乖地为社会主义服务”; “价值法则是一个大学校,只有学会利用它,才有可能教会我们的几千万干部和几万万人民,才有可能建设我们的社会主义和共产主义”;如此等等。这些思想由于历史的和认识的原因,当时并未引起人们的关注,但在后来的历史发展中,却展现了它们的重大理论意义和实践价值,发展成了邓小平理论和“三个代表”重要思想的重要内容。所有这些都告诉我们一个问题:在我们沿着中国特色社会主义胜利前进之时,在我们赞颂中国特色社会主义伟大业绩之时,不可忘记毛泽东同志!
三、毛泽东思想是一个科学的理论体系从体系上把握马克思主义的精神实质,是马克思主义经典作家的一贫思想。恩格斯要人们注意马克思主义基本观点的内在联系。列宁说,理论就是把纷繁复杂的社会生活概括为互相联系的几点。毛泽东同志认为,主要读马列的基本著作,掌握其基本理论,在立场观点方法上下功夫。邓小平同志针对林彪“四人帮”对毛泽东思想的实用主义歪曲,针对“两个凡是”的教条主义倾向,提出了要完整准确地领会毛泽东思想的科学体系,从体系上把握毛泽东思想精神实质的科学论断。科学的理论体系具有怎样的特征?我们认为:一是要有一个坚实的基础;二是要有若干首尾一贯、互相联系的墓本观点;三是要在实践基础上不断发展。这犹如把理论比喻为一座思想大厦,这个大厦要屹立于中国的大地,必然有一个坚实而稳固的基础,在这个基础上修筑起既分层次又互相联结的上层。但思想的大厦和物质的大厦不同,它不可以为自己封顶,而要在实践基础上不断发展。真理是朴素的。这三条看似简单,实际匕,‘它是从人类整个思想史的发展中得出的科学结论,为我们完整准确地领会毛泽东思想科学体系指明了方向。在邓小平同志的领导下,党的十一届六中全会《 决议》,根据科学理论的要求,建构了毛泽东思想科学的理论体系。首先,它明确了毛泽东思想的六大基本观点:关于新民主主义革命;关于社会主义革命和社会主义建设;关于革命军队的建设和军事战略;关于政策和策略;关于思想政治工作和文化工作;关于党的建设。最后阐明了贯穿于这六大基本理论之中的活的灵魂,即实事求是,群众路线和独立自主。毛泽东思想的科学体系,概括地说,就是六大基本理论和活的灵魂的有机统一。邓小平同志关于毛泽东思想是一个科学体系的论断,不仅要求从总体上领会和把握毛泽东思想的科学体系,而且要求对其中每一基本理论都要进行系统的梳理,从其诸方面的互相联系中把握它的精神实质。在这个更深的层次上,中央文献研究室编辑出版的《 毛泽东著作专题摘编》做了很有益的工作,使人们在框架性的理论形态中看到了博大思想的丰富内容。这不仅是一部学习和研究毛泽东思想的大型工具书,从一定意义上可以说是毛泽东思想的一部纲要性全书。从科学体系上领悟毛泽东思想的精神实质,应着眼于“三个统一”。一是历史的和逻辑的统一:依据中国所处的时代条件和社会状况,中国革命必须由旧民主主义革命转变为新民主主义革命,在新民主主义革命胜利后,适时地转变为社会主义革命和社会主义建设。毛泽东思想的基本观点就是在这个过程中形成的,就是这个过程的基本规律在理论上的表现。二是基本观点和活的灵魂的统一:毛泽东思想的六大基本观点不是彼此孤立的,而是一个互相联系的整体,贯穿这个整体的是一条红线,即实事求是、群众路线和独立自主,正是这个活的灵魂成了毛泽东思想这个理论大厦赖以形成和发展的坚实基础。二是理论和实践的统一:毛泽东思想的形成,就是马克思主义基木理论和中国革命具体实践相结合的产物,毛泽东思想的发展也是在理沦和实践具体的历史的结合中实现的,毛泽东思想就是在实践中不断发展的科学。我们应在体系上把握其发展的大势,从发展上理解体系的精神。
四、毛泽东思想是中国共产党人的世界观和方法论毛泽东同志最善于把马克思主义的辩证唯物论和历史唯物论,化作中国共产党人的立场观点方法,作为观察国家前途和命运的工具,作为创造理First, Mao Zedong Thought is Marxism in China is the largest of theoretical achievements of Marxism in China take the road to form a Chinese-Marxist theory, is the development of Marxism in China's laws. So far, in this process has been formed by three major theoretical achievements, that is, Mao Zedong Thought, Deng Xiaoping Theory and "Three Represents". History tells us that these three forms of the theory appeared in succession, rather than man-made fabrications subjective, but in line with the inevitable development of the law. This law, from an objective sense, that is, changes in historical conditions and practical requirements of the development; character from a theoretical point of view, is inherent in Marxism and advancing with the times. Mao Zedong Thought is the theme of war and revolution of the historical conditions, to adapt the practice of the Chinese revolution resulting from the requirements of the development, which is the basic feature of this era and the Chinese revolution in the practice of the law of the theory of performance. Deng Xiaoping Theory is for peace and development in the theme of the times of historical conditions, in developing the socialist road with Chinese characteristics, the formation of the practice, it reflects the development trend of this era of socialism with Chinese characteristics and laws of the movement. The formation of the "three represents" important thinking of the theme of the times, though there is still peace and development, but there has been a fundamental change in the situation, and this is the development trend of economic globalization, the world scientific and technological revolution and the rapid development of China's socialist market economy there; as a result of fundamental changes in the situation, so that the cause of socialism with Chinese characteristics, showing the development of many new features and patterns of the "three represents" important thinking of the characteristics and laws of these theories reflect the 21st century is China's Marxism.
The birth of Mao Zedong Thought, the development of Marxism in the history of far-reaching significance. From Mao Zedong Thought and the relationship between Marxism-Leninism, it was the Marxism-Leninism in China, and to make Marxism-Leninism in China to take root, flower and bear fruit, the formation of a Marxist history of the development of a new phase. Is at this stage, not only changed the direction of development of Chinese history, and set up a national democratic movement and the socialist revolution in the bridge.
Mao Zedong Thought and Marxism in China as the largest theoretical results,
Of Marxism in China's continued development has laid a solid foundation. Whether it is Deng Xiaoping, Jiang Zemin is still regarded as its own theory of Mao Zedong Thought and development. When someone attempts to negate the entire time of Mao Zedong Thought, Comrade Deng Xiaoping to hold high the banner of Mao Zedong Thought Mao Zedong Thought adhere to the basic theory, especially with regard to the theory of the basic contradictions in socialist society, and along the basic line of thought opened up a building with Chinese characteristics the socialist road. Comrade Jiang Zemin has always held that the "Three Represents" along with Marxism-Leninism, Mao Zedong Thought, Deng Xiaoping Theory is the unity of the same strain of the scientific system, in particular the building of socialism in his 12 big ideas and the relationship between "On the relationship between X "link on the basic program of socialism with Chinese characteristics and the" New Democracy "of connections, typical of historical significance. Can say: only by adhering to Marxism-Leninism and Mao Zedong Thought, the basic theory, have a profound Marxism-Leninism and Mao Zedong Thought theoretical foundation in order to gain a deeper understanding of Deng Xiaoping Theory and the "three represents" important thinking of the spiritual essence, and better to hold high the banner of Deng Xiaoping Theory, fully implement the "Three Represents". Second, Mao Zedong Thought is the Chinese revolution and construction to open up the road a sharp weapon the most basic principle of Marxism is the unity of theory and practice. Marxism-Leninism in the Chinese revolution and the specific practice that arise during the Mao Zedong Thought, and turn again to understand and transform the Chinese became a sharp weapon. As Comrade Deng Xiaoping said: a national revolution to victory, the experience of the most fundamental is this: the Communist Party of countries should be based on their own country, and find out the revolutionary road of their own. The practice of Mao Zedong Thought, the value lies in its theory and practice in accordance with the specific history of the unity of the principle of opening up to rural areas characterized by encircling the cities from the new-democratic revolution; and is characterized by a peaceful transformation of the path of socialist revolution; also to China's social and the construction of a difficult road to explore.
Encircling the cities from rural areas on the characteristics of the democratic revolution to the road. To deeply understand the inevitability of this path and correct, according to Comrade Mao Zedong's theory and the rationale is Gyeokpo No. 8 by the 004-year date
Theoretical Study
Practice should focus on four basic points: (a) of the old China is a backward economy半封建半殖民地society in such a country to start a revolution, is the largest rural patriarchal feudal class, which is the existence of reactionary rule basis. In the absence of farmers from rural areas to rise, down with the privileges of the feudal landlord class, reactionary superstructure would not simply collapse; (b) Old China is imperialist, feudal landlords and bureaucratic capital of authoritarian rule, the basic form of the revolution must be " the regime inside the barrel of a gun "to the armed revolution against the armed counter-revolutionary; (c) of the farmers is the main force of revolution, the new-democratic revolution, in fact, farmers, and the democratic revolution that is essentially peasant revolution, revolutionary war is essentially the farmers war. Farmers will not forget all the revolution; (d) of China is an imbalance in the development of economic and political power, the rule of the enemy's center in the city, the vast rural areas is the weak link in their rule, the revolution should be the first breakthrough in the rural areas, the "worker-peasant armed separatism, "encircling the cities from rural areas take the armed seizure of power the road.
On the characteristics of peace into the path of socialist revolution. In accordance with the general principles of Marxism is "to deprive those who are deprived." Lenin in Russia made the implementation of state capitalism, through the redemption policy. Comrade Mao Zedong from the reality of China, the socialist revolution in China take the road of peaceful transformation. According to Comrade Mao Zedong's theory and practice, this road is the basic points: (a) of China's democratic revolution and socialist revolution is the difference between each other and each other infiltration. Through the democratic revolution, the confiscation of bureaucratic capital, not only has the nature of the socialist revolution, but also laid the foundation for socialist transformation; (b) of China's socialist transformation in the people's democratic dictatorship under the conditions of, the bourgeoisie is not afraid to rebel, according to the bourgeoisie two sides still have characteristics of the socialist transformation of capitalist industry and commerce, in the areas of internal contradictions among the people, and provides a realistic possibility; (c) China's Social论、制定路线、开辟道路的武器,作为完成各项工作任务的‘’桥”和“船”。毛泽东同志最善于把中国革命和建设的经验,从世界观和方法论的高度加以总结,创造出有中国特点的马克思主义哲学理论,提高中国共产党人的哲学修养和思维能力。读毛泽东同志的经济、政治、文化和军事著作,如《 中国革命战争的战略问题》 、<新民主主义论》、《 在延安文艺座谈会上的讲话》 、《 论十大关系》等,一定要读出它的哲学意蕴,把握住它的立场观点方法,否则就叫没有读懂。读毛泽东同志的哲学著作,如《 实践论》 、《 矛盾论艺《关干正确处理人民内部矛盾的问题》等,一定要感受到它是中国革命和建设经验的哲学总结,体验出它是中国革命和建设规律的哲学升华,否则同样叫没有读懂。从这个意义上说,一部《毛泽东选集》 就是一部活的马克思主义哲学教科书。
毛泽东同志认为,马克思主义哲学是世界观和方法论的一致休。有什么样的世界观就有什么样的方法论。世界观只有
化作方法论,才能发挥其“改变世界”的功能。毛泽东同志在注重世界观改造的同时,特别强调哲学方法论的意义。大家会注意到:他的哲学的基本命题都是从方法论上立论的,如实事求是、一分为二、群众路线、独立自主等。
世界观和方法论的一致体的命题,还包括世界观和认识论的统一。因为只有认识世界才能改变世界,而认识世界是在改变世界中进行的。在这方面,毛泽东同志有诸多创造性的成果:他依据马克思主义的唯物论,提出了物质变精神、精神变物质的认识路线;他依据马克思主义的实践观,提出了实践、认识、再实践、再认识的认识路线;他依据马克思主义的矛盾论,提出了从特殊到一般、又从一般到特殊的认识路线;他依据马克思主义的唯物史观,提出r 从群众中来,到群众中去,集中起来,坚持下去的认识路线。正是从这个意义上,毛泽东同志提出了“哲学就是认识论”的科学论断。这决不是对马克思主义哲学的 “短视”,而是对马克思主义哲学的本质把握。毛泽东同志在他的哲学实践中,很注重研究和把握哲学变为现实的中间环节,特别是哲学和政治的关系。在1959 年他提出了一个重要观点:哲学要为政治服务,要为当前的政治服务。认为马克思的书必须读,但必须有新的理论家写出新的著作,以适应新形势发展的需要。《实践论》 和《 矛盾论》就是那时不能不写的。这个科学的观点在“文化大革命”中被扭曲了。林彪、“四人帮”打着毛泽东思想的旗号,借口“哲学要为当前的政治服务”,把哲学当成了 “政治的脾女”,变成了为他们错误的政治思想、政治路线和政治行为辩护的工具,产生了极其恶劣的影响。这些东西危及着毛泽东哲学思想的生命,对它彻底加以否定是完全正确的。但在否定后产生了另一种倾向,就是要哲学远离政治,好像离政治越远越哲学,认为哲学殿堂容不得政治干扰。这种观点是不对的。正如邓小平同志所说,理论研究是不能脱离政治的,理论总是要为政治服务的。特别是在他提出“什么时候都要讲政治”之后,就要认真研究哲学和政治相互关系的规律,用马克思主义的世界观和方法论指导政治路线的制定和执行,用马克思主义的世界观和方法论总结实践经验,用实践纠正方针政策中可能发生的偏差。我今天之所以提出这个问题,是想说这样两句话:马克思主义的政治家,必须有很好的哲学修养;马克思主义的哲学家,必须有政治家的风范。这是中国革命经验的昭示,也是马克思主义哲学的本质要求。一、毛泽东思想是马克思主义中国化的第一大理论成果走马克思主义中国化的道路,形成中国化的马克思主义理论,是马克思主义在中国发展的规律。迄今为止,在这个过程中已经形成了三大理论成果,这就是毛泽东思想、邓小平理论和“三个代表”重要思想。历史经验告诉我们,这三大理论形态的相继出现,不是人为的主观臆造,而是合乎规律的必然发展。这种规律性,从客观意义上来看,就是时代条件的变迁和实践发展的要求;从理论品格上来看,就是马克思主义所固有的与时俱进性。毛泽东思想是在战争与革命为主题的历史条件下,适应中国革命实践发展的要求而产生的,它是这个时代的基本特征和中国革命实践规律的理论表现。邓小平理论是在和平与发展为时代主题的历史条件下,在开拓有中国特色社会主义道路的实践中形成的,它反映着这个时代的发展趋势和中国特色社会主义的运动规律。形成“三个代表”重要思想的时代主题,虽然仍是和平与发展,但形势发生了根本性变化,这就是经济全球化的发展趋势,世界性科技革命的迅猛发展和中国社会主义市场经济的出现;由于形势的根本性变化,使中国特色社会主义事业的发展呈现出了诸多新的特点和规律,“三个代表”重要思想就是这些特点和规律的理论反映,是面向21 世纪的中国化的马克思主义。
毛泽东思想的诞生,在马克思主义发展史上具有深远的意义。从毛泽东思想和马克思列宁主义的关系而言,它把马克思列宁主义中国化了,使马克思列宁主义在中国生根、开花、结果,形成了马克思主义发展史上的一个崭新阶段。就是在这个阶段,不仅改变了中国历史发展的方向,而且搭起了民族民主运动和社会主义革命的桥梁。
毛泽东思想作为马克思主义中国化的第一大理论成果,
对中国化的马克思主义的继续发展,奠定了坚实的基础。无论是邓小平同志、还是江泽民同志,都把自己的理论看作是毛泽东思想的继承和发展。当有人企图全盘否定毛泽东思想时,是邓小平同志高举毛泽东思想的旗帜,坚持毛泽东思想的基本理论,特别是关于社会主义社会基本矛盾的理论,并沿着这一基本思路开辟了建设有中国特色的社会主义道路。江泽民同志始终认为,“三个代表”重要思想同马克思列宁主义、毛泽东思想、邓小平理论是一脉相承的统一的科学体系,特别是他关于社会主义建设中十二大关系的思想和《 论十大关系》 的联系,关于有中国特色社会主义基本纲领和《 新民主主义论》的联系,更具有历史的典型性意义。可以这样说:只有坚持马克思列宁主义和毛泽东思想的基本理论,有着深厚的马克思列宁主义和毛泽东思想的理论功底,才能更深刻地领会邓小平理论和“三个代表”重要思想的精神实质,更好地高举邓小平理论的旗帜,全面贯彻“三个代表”重要思想。二、毛泽东思想是开拓中国革命和建设道路的锐利武器马克思主义最基本的原则是理论和实践的统一。在马克思列宁主义和中国革命的具体实践相结合过程中产生的毛泽东思想,反转来又成了认识和改造中国的锐利武器。正如邓小平同志所说:一个国家革命要胜利,最根本的一条经验就是:各国共产党应根据自己国家的情况,找出自己的革命道路。毛泽东思想的实践价值,就在于它根据理论和实践具体的历史的统一原则,开辟了以农村包围城市为特征的新民主主义革命道路;以和平改造为特征的社会主义革命道路;还对中国社会主义建设道路进行了艰辛的探索。
关于以农村包围城市为特征的民主革命道路。要深刻理解这条道路的必然性和正确性,根据毛泽东同志的理论和实理格浦由004 年第8 期日
理论研究
践,应着眼于四个基本点:(一)旧中国是一个经济落后的半封建半殖民地社会,在这样一个国家搞革命,最大的对象是乡村宗法封建阶级,这是反动统治得以存在的基础。如无农民从农村中奋起,打倒封建地主阶级之特权,反动的上层建筑便不会根本倒塌;(二)旧中国是帝国主义、官僚资本和封建地主的专制统治,革命的基本形式必须是“枪杆子里面出政权”,以武装的革命反对武装的反革命;(三)农民是革命的主力军,新民主主义实质上就是农民革命主义,民主革命实质上就是农民革命,革命战争实质上就是农民战争.忘记了农民就没有了一切革命;(四)中国是一个经济政治发展不平衡的大国,敌人的统治中心在城市,广大农村则是其统治的薄弱环节,革命应首先在农村突破,实行“工农武装割据”,走农村包围城市武装夺取政权的道路。
关于以和平改造为特征的社会主义革命道路。按照马克思主义的一般原则是“剥夺者被剥夺”。列宁在俄国曾提出通过国家资本主义实行赎买政策。毛泽东同志则从中国的实际出发,提出中国社会主义革命要走和平改造之路。根据毛泽东同志的理论和实践,这条道路的基本点是:(一)中国的民主革命和社会主义革命是互相区别又互相渗透的。通过民主革命没收官僚资本,不仅具有社会主义革命的性质,而且为社会主义改造奠定了基础;(二)中国的社会主义改造是在人民民主专政条件下进行的,不怕资产阶级造反,根据资产阶级仍具有两面性特点,对资本主义工商业的社会主义改造,在人民内部矛盾范畴内进行,提供了现实可能性;(三)我国的社会主义改造是和社会主义工业化同时并举的,用社会主义工业化带动社会主义改造,用社会主义改造促进社会主义工业化的发展;(四)对资本主义工商业的改造,采取了委托加工、计划定货、统购包销、公私合营和全行业公私合营等一系列过渡形式,逐步把资本主义私有制变为社会主义公有制。
关于对社会主义建设道路的艰辛探索。建设有中国特色社会主义道路的开拓,始于毛泽东,成于邓小平,发展于江泽民。毛泽东同志作为第一开拓者,他在探索中既有严重失误,也有重大成就。但总的看来,他的探索和创新,丰富了对社会主义建设规律的认识,有力地指导了我国的社会主义建设。这主要表现在:提出了社会主义社会基本矛盾的理论,提出了经济建设也要走自己道路的思想,提出了以农业为基础、以工业为主导的方针,提出了以自力更生为主、争取外援为辅的原则,提出了建立比较完整的工业体系和国民经济体系的设想,提出了正确处理人民内部矛盾的理论和政策等。这就是邓小平同志和江泽民同志相继在新的历史条件下成功地开拓和发展中国特色社会主义道路的基础和起点。
毛泽东同志在探索中还提出了一些非常有见地的思想。如“在中国建设强大的社会主义经济五十年不行,会要一百年,或者更长的时间”; “社会主义这个阶段,又可分为两个阶段,第一阶段是不发达的社会主义,第二阶段是比较发达的社会主义”; “商品生产不能与资本主义混为一谈”, “商品生产可以乖乖地为社会主义服务”; “价值法则是一个大学校,只有学会利用它,才有可能教会我们的几千万干部和几万万人民,才有可能建设我们的社会主义和共产主义”;如此等等。这些思想由于历史的和认识的原因,当时并未引起人们的关注,但在后来的历史发展中,却展现了它们的重大理论意义和实践价值,发展成了邓小平理论和“三个代表”重要思想的重要内容。所有这些都告诉我们一个问题:在我们沿着中国特色社会主义胜利前进之时,在我们赞颂中国特色社会主义伟大业绩之时,不可忘记毛泽东同志!
三、毛泽东思想是一个科学的理论体系从体系上把握马克思主义的精神实质,是马克思主义经典作家的一贫思想。恩格斯要人们注意马克思主义基本观点的内在联系。列宁说,理论就是把纷繁复杂的社会生活概括为互相联系的几点。毛泽东同志认为,主要读马列的基本著作,掌握其基本理论,在立场观点方法上下功夫。邓小平同志针对林彪“四人帮”对毛泽东思想的实用主义歪曲,针对“两个凡是”的教条主义倾向,提出了要完整准确地领会毛泽东思想的科学体系,从体系上把握毛泽东思想精神实质的科学论断。科学的理论体系具有怎样的特征?我们认为:一是要有一个坚实的基础;二是要有若干首尾一贯、互相联系的墓本观点;三是要在实践基础上不断发展。这犹如把理论比喻为一座思想大厦,这个大厦要屹立于中国的大地,必然有一个坚实而稳固的基础,在这个基础上修筑起既分层次又互相联结的上层。但思想的大厦和物质的大厦不同,它不可以为自己封顶,而要在实践基础上不断发展。真理是朴素的。这三条看似简单,实际匕,‘它是从人类整个思想史的发展中得出的科学结论,为我们完整准确地领会毛泽东思想科学体系指明了方向。在邓小平同志的领导下,党的十一届六中全会《 决议》,根据科学理论的要求,建构了毛泽东思想科学的理论体系。首先,它明确了毛泽东思想的六大基本观点:关于新民主主义革命;关于社会主义革命和社会主义建设;关于革命军队的建设和军事战略;关于政策和策略;关于思想政治工作和文化工作;关于党的建设。最后阐明了贯穿于这六大基本理论之中的活的灵魂,即实事求是,群众路线和独立自主。毛泽东思想的科学体系,概括地说,就是六大基本理论和活的灵魂的有机统一。邓小平同志关于毛泽东思想是一个科学体系的论断,不仅要求从总体上领会和把握毛泽东思想的科学体系,而且要求对其中每一基本理论都要进行系统的梳理,从其诸方面的互相联系中把握它的精神实质。在这个更深的层次上,中央文献研究室编辑出版的《 毛泽东著作专题摘编》做了很有益的工作,使人们在框架性的理论形态中看到了博大思想的丰富内容。这不仅是一部学习和研究毛泽东思想的大型工具书,从一定意义上可以说是毛泽东思想的一部纲要性全书。从科学体系上领悟毛泽东思想的精神实质,应着眼于“三个统一”。一是历史的和逻辑的统一:依据中国所处的时代条件和社会状况,中国革命必须由旧民主主义革命转变为新民主主义革命,在新民主主义革命胜利后,适时地转变为社会主义革命和社会主义建设。毛泽东思想的基本观点就是在这个过程中形成的,就是这个过程的基本规律在理论上的表现。二是基本观点和活的灵魂的统一:毛泽东思想的六大基本观点不是彼此孤立的,而是一个互相联系的整体,贯穿这个整体的是一条红线,即实事求是、群众路线和独立自主,正是这个活的灵魂成了毛泽东思想这个理论大厦赖以形成和发展的坚实基础。二是理论和实践的统一:毛泽东思想的形成,就是马克思主义基木理论和中国革命具体实践相结合的产物,毛泽东思想的发展也是在理沦和实践具体的历史的结合中实现的,毛泽东思想就是在实践中不断发展的科学。我们应在体系上把握其发展的大势,从发展上理解体系的精神。
四、毛泽东思想是中国共产党人的世界观和方法论毛泽东同志最善于把马克思主义的辩证唯物论和历史唯物论,化作中国共产党人的立场观点方法,作为观察国家前途和命运的工具,作为创造理论、制定路线、开辟道路的武器,作为完成各项工作任务的‘’桥”和“船”。毛泽东同志最善于把中国革命和建设的经验,从世界观和方法论的高度加以总结,创造出有中国特点的马克思主义哲学理论,提高中国共产党人的哲学修养和思维能力。读毛泽东同志的经济、政治、文化和军事著作,如《 中国革命战争的战略问题》 、<新民主主义论》、《 在延安文艺座谈会上的讲话》 、《 论十大关系》 等,一定要读出它的哲学意蕴,把握住它的立场观点方法,否则就叫没有读懂。读毛泽东同志的哲学
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唐元韭黄的历史渊源
uio899
回答了这个问题 | 09-07-20
Tang Yuan韭黄Pixian cultivation has reached in more than 300 years, mainly in the lower reaches of Dujiangyan Xu artesian water weir River, Parker River, coastal rivers such as River蒲阳the Tang Yuan, Andrea, the ancient city, three towns weir. Department of Dujiangyan of the region oil alluvial sand, soil organic matter content was high, loose, breathable, good water quality, especially suitable for the growth of韭黄.
Late Ming and early Qing, immigrants poured into Sichuan. It is said that there is a "杨家将" descent from Hubei to move to the south bank of River蒲阳"5 Longmen" settling in their arising from leek seeds蒲阳River in open韭黄yuan Tang history of cultivation.
According to folklore, Emperor Kangxi in the Qing Dynasty in the year between the summer, under continuous heavy rain for several days, leading to the River蒲阳flash flooding. And rush down the flood, the river flooded Yang Xin, a high-cut red sub-soil ridge collapse, the soil of Tanaka Bradysia cover. More than 10 days after the owner found on the soil and found that the green leek leaf has become yellow buds of Allium, Allium bud rinse wash, the yellow and white jade bud, cooking and eating the crisp and delicate, it is called "son of leek shoot", commonly known as "韭黄." So people are used clay to build leek, so to soften the leaves turn yellow Chinese chives,韭黄modern breed.
Later, there is a farmers Wang, lack of means, such as washing, lack of labor. Rice finished in the land, no home in time to tam straw, but straw on their顺手牵羊Tanabe leek. After more than 20 days, Wang farmers to collect the straw, but surprised to find green leek has become韭黄. Cook and eat, even fresh, incense, tender, crisp, and the soil texture is similar韭黄open. Future generations on the basis of this principle, the use of straw to avoid shading shed created to produce韭黄Yang.唐元韭黄在郫县种植已达300余年,主要集中在都江堰自流水系下游的徐堰河、柏条河、蒲阳河等河流沿岸的唐元、安德、古城、三道堰等镇。该区域系都江堰冲积油沙土,土壤有机质含量高,疏松、透气,水质优良,特别适宜韭黄生长。
明末清初,移民大举进入四川。相传有一支“杨家将”后裔从湖北迁移到蒲阳河下游南岸“五道龙门”处定居,将其带来的韭菜种子播种在蒲阳河河岸,开启了唐元韭黄的种植历史。
据民间传说,在清朝康熙年间的一年夏天,连续下了几天倾盆大雨,导致蒲阳河上游的山洪暴发。洪水奔泻而下,淹没了杨家河心,将一断高土埂子冲塌,泥土盖住了田中韭菜。十多天以后,主人挖开泥土,发现原来的绿色韭菜叶已变成了嫩黄的韭芽,用清水将韭芽洗净后,芽黄白如玉,烹而食之脆而细嫩,人们叫作 “韭菜芽子”,俗称“韭黄”。于是人们都采用泥盖韭菜,使韭菜叶子软化变黄,培育出现代的韭黄。
后来,又有一个王姓种植户,家贫如洗,缺乏劳动力。在收完水稻后,没有及时把稻草担回家,而是顺手牵羊地把稻草放在韭菜田边。二十多天后,王姓农户去收稻草,却意外地发现青韭已变成韭黄。烹而食之,竟鲜、香、嫩、脆,与泥土掩盖的韭黄口感不相上下。后人就根据这个原理,采用稻草扎成棚子遮光避阳来生产韭黄。
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党的四大最大的历史功绩在于
uio899
回答了这个问题 | 09-07-20
"Eight" is building a socialist party in the history of a glorious road milestone in the history of the party of far-reaching historical significance and of great practical significance of the General Assembly.
First, the "eight" principles of the use of Marxism-Leninism in light of China's revolution and construction, the correct analysis of the basic completion of socialist transformation, the internal changes in the principal contradiction to the party's focus shifted to the socialist economic construction in terms of strategic decision-making. "Eight" in the analysis of three completed the transformation, the main contradiction in the tremendous domestic changes, come to the socialist system in China has basically established, the domestic proletariat is no longer the principal contradiction and the contradiction between the bourgeoisie conclusions. Pointed out that "the main contradiction in our country, it is the people in advanced industrial countries to establish the requirements of the backward agricultural country with the reality of the contradiction between; is people's economic and cultural needs of the rapid development of economy and culture with the current can not meet the needs of the people the contradiction between the situation. the contradictions of China's socialist system in the case has been established, which is advanced behind the socialist system with the contradiction between the productive forces. "proletariat with the contradiction between the bourgeoisie, although there is still a certain extent, but
Is no longer the principal contradiction in Chinese society, and reduced secondary contradictions. Therefore, the focus of the work of the party leadership of the National People's socialist economic construction, and greatly develop the productive forces. Achieve the country's industrialization, in order to gradually meet the growing material and cultural needs. The party's focus on the strategic shift in time of our country's revolution and construction experience made a scientific summary of Marxism-Leninism.
Second, "eight," summed up "The Greatest" has been the experience of the Soviet Union learn from the experiences and lessons of economic construction, the development of a comprehensive socialist economic construction to carry out the correct principles and the establishment of a new program of socio-economic system. In order to vigorously develop social productive forces, as soon as possible to change the backwardness of our country, "eight," summed up the founding of the PRC, especially since "15" experience gained during the plan period. In production, raised the need to maintain heavy industry, light industry and agriculture, the relationship between the proportion, that is, giving priority to the development of heavy industry in the affirmative, we must attach importance to the development of light industry and agriculture, explained the development of heavy industry and light industry, agriculture, the dialectical relationship between, " eight, "the resolution pointed out: the priority development of heavy industry, we must be based on raw materials, funds and markets may need to actively develop the light industry, and one-sided emphasis on the development of heavy industry while neglecting the development of light industry, heavy industry will be weakened it. In the development of speed, "eight" is put forward to oppose the right-wing conservative, but also against the hasty act, following the Comprehensive balance approach to the steady development. Is
In a full analysis of China's abundant human and material resources, markets and other aspects, the accurate assessment of the economic, financial and technical constraints on the objective, it is estimated that the need to maintain reserve forces, and actively and steadily push forward the national economic development. "Eight" also proposed to improve the economic management system, "eight" in accordance with Comrade Mao Zedong, "to identify the relationship between the top ten" in the economic management system put forward by the presence of the central maladies of over-centralization of power, called for a suitable localities and enterprises to expand the power play two of enthusiasm. "Eight," made in accordance with the "unified leadership and management at different levels," the principle of division of the central and local management of the terms of reference to ensure that enterprises in the national unity and reunification under the leadership of the program management, financial management, cadre management, appropriate the degree of autonomy. Chen added in the "eight" to speak of "the three main and three supplementary" important opinion, constitutes a preliminary model from the traditional planned economy, the main commodity economy to a socialist economic system as a supplement program.
Third, "the Group of Eight," an analysis of the situation after the ruling party, determined to strengthen the building of the party's correct line of approach.
"Eight," an analysis of the party since the founding of the organization, summed up the experience of building the party's proposed construction of the new era of strengthening the Party's line and policies. Pointed out: since the founding, our party has been in the position of the ruling party, the party is faced with a new test. Such status is easy to make a number of party members and complacency, complacency to develop pride, divorced from reality and the masses, the development of subjectivism, sectarianism, bureaucracy generated. Therefore, in order to prevent this phenomenon, it is necessary to strengthen the party's ideological education and improve the level of the whole party of Marxism-Leninism, seeking truth from facts, carry forward the party's close ties with the masses of the fine traditions and work style, and foster the idea of serving the people wholeheartedly and firmly with the bureaucracy, the subjective and the fight against sectarianism. At the same time to carry forward the life of inner-party democracy, the establishment of democratic centralism. "Eight" from the experience of the Soviet Union have raised objection to the cult of personality, personal highlight of the mission. Pointed out that the "cult of personality is a long history of social phenomenon, which we will not not for the life of the party has its own reaction." Therefore, we must
"Resolutely implement the central authorities against the individual prominent individuals opposed to the principle of singing the praises of" continue to adhere to collective leadership and individual responsibility system combining.
"Eight" in the further expansion of socialist democracy, improve the socialist legal system, it is also put forward a number of correct thinking.
The party's "Eight" was held, our party has led the people across the country for seven years before economic development, lack of experience in building socialism with some of blindness issues, awareness of the problem to some constraints, lack of mental preparation, so , "eight" the correct line for various reasons did not implement it. However, the "eight" is the brilliant achievements: the domestic situation and tasks facing the judge, at the same time thinking of a number of important policy and economic construction, the development of a comprehensive line of building socialism correct, for in exploring the road of socialism with China's national conditions on an important step for building a socialist country specified in the right direction. Communist China, "eight" the achievements of socialism in China, the indelible history of the development of shining brilliance."八大"是我们党在建设社会主义历史道路上一个光辉的里程碑,是党的历史上具有深远历史意义和重大现实意义的大会。
一、"八大"运用马列主义原理,结合我国革命和建设的实际,正确分析了社会主义改造基本完成后,国内主要矛盾的变化,作出了党的工作重点转移到社会主义经济建设方面来的战略决策。"八大"在分析了三大改造基本完成、国内主要矛盾发生的巨大变化后,得出社会主义制度在我国已经基本建立起来,国内的主要矛盾已不再是无产阶级和资产阶级之间的矛盾的结论。指出,"我们国内的主要矛盾,已经是人民对于建立先进的工业国的要求同落后的农业国的现实之间的矛盾;已经是人民对经济文化迅速发展的需求同当前经济文化不能满足人民需要的状况之间的矛盾。这一矛盾,在我国社会主义制度已经建立的情况下,也就是先进的社会主义制度同落后的生产力之间的矛盾。"无产阶级同资产阶级之间的矛盾,虽然在一定范围内还存在,但
已经不是中国社会的主要矛盾,而降为次要矛盾。因此,党的工作重点是领导全国人民进行社会主义经济建设,大大发展生产力。实现国家的工业化,以逐步满足人民日益增长的物质文化的需要。党的工作重点及时的战略转移,是对我国革命和建设的经验作了马列主义的科学总结。
二、"八大"总结了"七大"以来的经验,借鉴了苏联经济建设的经验教训,制定了全面开展社会主义经济建设的正确方针和建立新的社会经济体制方案。为了能大力发展社会生产力,尽早改变我国的落后面貌,"八大"总结了建国以来,特别是"一五"计划期间积累的经验。在生产上,提出了必须保持重工业、轻工业和农业之间的比例关系,即在肯定优先发展重工业的同时,必须重视发展轻工业和农业,阐明了发展重工业和轻工业、农业之间的辩证关系,"八大"决议指出:优先发展重工业的同时,我们必须根据原料,资金的可能和市场需要,积极发展轻工业,片面强调重工业的发展而忽视轻工业的发展,结果将反而消弱重工业。在发展速度上,"八大"提出了既要反对右倾保守,又要反对急躁冒进,综后平衡稳步向前发展的方针。也就是
在充分分析了我国丰富的人力和物力资源、市场等诸方面后,正确估计经济上、财政上和技术力量上的客观限制,估计到保持后备力量的必要性,积极地而又稳妥地推进国民经济的发展。"八大"还提出了改进经济管理体制的问题,"八大"根据毛泽东同志《认十大关系》中提出的经济管理体制中存在着中央过分集权的弊病,要求适当扩大地方和企业权力,发挥两个积极性。"八大"提出了按照"统一领导、分级管理"的原则,划分了中央和地方的管理职权,保证企业在国家统一领导和统一计划下,在计划管理,财务管理,干部管理等方面有适当的自治权力。加上陈云在"八大"发言中"三个主体、三个补充"的重要意见,就初步构成了区别于传统模式的计划经济为主,以商品经济为辅的社会主义经济体制方案。
三、"八大"分析了党执政后的状况,确定了加强党的建设的正确路线的方针。
"八大"分析了建国以来党的组织状况,总结了党的建设的经验,提出了新时期加强党的建设的路线和方针。指出:建国以来,我们党已处在执政党的地位、党面临着新的考验。这种地位很容易使一些党员沾沾自喜、滋长骄傲自满情绪,脱离实际,脱离群众,发展主观主义,宗派主义,产生官僚主义。因此,为了防止这种现象出现,就必须加强党内的思想教育,提高全党的马列主义水平,发扬党的实事求是、密切联系群众的优良传统和作风,树立全心全意为人民服务的思想、坚决同官僚主义、主观主义和宗派主义作斗争。同时要发扬党内民主生活,建立民主集中制。"八大"借鉴苏联的经验,提出反对个人崇拜、个人突出的任务。指出"个人崇拜是一种长远历史的社会现象,这种现象也不会不在我们党的生活中作有它的某些反应。"因此,必须
"坚决地执行中央反对个人突出,反对对个人歌功颂德的方针"继续坚持集体领导和个人负责相结合的制度。
"八大"在进一步扩大社会主义民主,健全社会主义法制等方面也提出了许多正确的思想。
党的"八大"召开时,我们党领导全国人民进行经济建设才七年,经验不足,在建设社会主义问题上存在某些盲目性,对一些问题的认识有一定的局限,思想准备不足,因此,"八大"的正确路线由于种种原因没有贯彻下去。但是,"八大"的辉煌成就在于:面临国内形势和任务作出的判断,同时提出一系列重要思想和经济建设政策,制定出全面建设社会主义的正确路线,在探索适合我国国情的社会主义道路上迈出重要的一步,为全国建设社会主义指明了方向。中共"八大"的成就,在中国社会主义发展史上闪耀着不可磨灭的光辉。
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宇文氏为何有一支改做宇氏
uio899
回答了这个问题 | 09-07-20
YUWEN surname originated in the Liaodong, after South Chanyu. When the Wei, Jin, Northern Wei, Jin and when there are宇文氏Xianbei ethnic tribes, claiming to be descendants of Yan Di Shen, Pu spread back to adults, he Lost in hunting when a jade seal, carved on "The Emperor Xi" words, self-righteous right天授God, the people call days as "woo" the king said the "culture", so called宇文氏, which means "Son of Heaven." Eastern Jin Dynasty, the word, according to the Central Plains into the Venturi has gradually become the surname Han. Therefore, people from Cape宇文氏YUWEN back for a surname ancestor's surname.
YUWEN surname in the mainland and Taiwan were not the top one hundred most common. From "Wen Ji Zhou" and "Annals little clan," the two best books, we can see "YUWEN" word from the phrase was translated Xianbei, "yu" is the meaning of days, "Culture" is mean-jun. Northern and Southern Dynasties, when the Central Plains region, turmoil and chaos of war, many foreign central plains want to conquer the world, and the Liaodong宇文氏origin of the ancestor as a result of inadvertently get a piece of jade seal on the River, that the meaning to them as the emperor, therefore, not only to change the country YUWEN even one of their chiefs, and also changed the YUWEN. Perhaps it is "an act of God", Xianbei ethnic group to which one's YUWEN for after the world was made and becomes the emperor, established the Northern Zhou Dynasty in China in the history of the dynasty.宇文氏of a surname, some large before 1500. Point should be the birthplace of the Wuchuan Suiyuan area now.复姓YUWEN proclaim oneself emperor in the history of a total of 6 people, the creation of the Northern Zhou Dynasty and the founding 25 years. UN family in赵郡(now the Hebei Province赵县); later County Habitat Taiyuan (Shanxi Province, Taiyuan, this county).宇文姓起源于辽东,为南单于之后。魏晋时,魏晋时北方鲜卑族有宇文氏部落,自称是炎帝神农氏的后裔,传至普回大人时,他在出猎时拾得一枚玉玺,上刻“皇帝玺”三字,自以为是天授神权,其族人呼天为“宇”,称君为“文”,于是号称宇文氏,意为“天子”。东晋时,字文氏进据中原,逐渐成为汉族人的姓氏。故宇文氏后人奉普回为宇文姓的得姓始祖。
宇文姓在大陆与台湾均未进入前一百大姓。从《周书·文帝纪》和《通志·氏族略》两书上考究,可知“宇文”两个字,都是从当时鲜卑语翻译过来的,“宇”是天的意思,“文”是君的意思。南北朝时的中原地区,兵荒马乱,许多外族都想来中原打天下,而原居辽东的宇文氏的始祖,由于无意间获得一块玉玺于河,认为寓意要他们当皇帝,所以,不但把国号改为宇文,甚至连其酋长一家人,也都改姓了宇文。也许真的是“天意”,鲜卑族的这一支族人以宇文为氏之后,果然打出了天下,当上了皇帝,建立了我国历史上的北周王朝。宇文氏的得姓,大约大1500以前。发祥地点应该是现在绥远的武川一带。宇文复姓在历史上称帝者共6人,创立北周王朝,立国25年。望族居赵郡(今河北省赵县);后来居太原郡(今山西省太原县)。
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关于历史的对联
uio899
回答了这个问题 | 09-07-20
Ah once again asked you yesterday. . . Human mighty, not anti-patriotic成仇你咋又问一遍啊。。。洪恩浩荡,不能报国反成仇
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